F  U  S  A  N  G. 


•KIN  PHD   BY  BALLAXTYNK  AND  COMPANY 
EDINBURGH   AND   LONDON 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA 


FUS  ANG 


ok 


CHINESE  BUDDHIST  PRIESTS  IN   THE 
FIFTH  CENTUR  Y. 


CHARLES    G.    LELAND. 

h 


anc 
lira 


LONDON : 
TRUBNER    &    CO.,    LUDGATE    HILL. 

1875- 

[All  rights  reserved.] 


PREFACE. 


IT  is  now  more  than  a  century  since  the  learned  French 
sinologist  Deguignes  set  forth,  in  a  very  ably-written 
paper  in  the  "  Memoires  de  1' Academic  cles  Inscriptions 
et  Belles  Lettres  "  (vol.  xxviii.,  1761),  the  fact  that  he  had 
found  in  the  works  of  early  Chinese  historians  a  state 
ment  that,  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era,  certain  travel 
lers  of  their  race  had  discovered  a  country  which  they 
called  Fusang,  and  which,  from  the  direction  and  dis 
tance  as  described  by  them,  appeared  to  be  Western 
America,  and  in  all  probability  Mexico.  When  De 
guignes  wrote,  his  resources,  both  as  regards  the  know 
ledge  of  the  region  supposed  to  have  been  discovered 
and  the  character  of  the  travellers,  were  extremely 
limited,  so  that  the  skill  with  which  he  conducted  his 
investigation,  and  the  shrewdness  of  his  conjectures, 
render  his  memoir,  even  to  the  present  day,  a  subject 
of  commendation  among  scholars.  Few  men  have  ever 
done  so  much  or  as  well  with  such  scanty  and  doubtful 
material. 

The   original  document  on  which  the   Chinese  his- 

268737 


vi  PREFACE. 


torians  based  their  accoimt  of  Fusang  was  the  report 
of  a  Buddhist  monk  or  missionary  named  Hoei-shin 
(Schin  or  Shen),1  who,  in  the  year  499  A.D.,  returned 
from  a  long  journey  to  the  East.  This  report  was 
regularly  entered  on  the  Year-Books  or  Annals  of  the 
Chinese  Empire,  whence  it  passed,  not  only  to  the  pages 
of  historians,  but  also  to  those  of  poets  and  writers 
of  romances,  by  whom  it  was  so  confused  with  absurd 
inventions  and  marvellous  tales,  that  even  at  the  pre 
sent  day  discredit  is  thrown  by  a  certain  class  of  critics 
on  the  entire  narrative.  In  1841  Carl  Friedrich  Neu 
mann,  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  and  History  at 
the  University  of  Munich,  published  the  original  narra 
tive  of  Hoei-shin  from  the  Annals,  adding  to  it  com 
ments  of  his  own  elucidating  its  statements,  and  advanc 
ing  somewhat  beyond  Deguignes.  This  little  work  I 
translated  into  English,  under  the  supervision  of  Pro 
fessor  Neumann,  and  with  his  aid.  I  believe  that,  as 
he  revised  and  corrected  the  English  version  here  given, 
it  may  claim  to  be  an  accurate  translation  from  the 
Chinese  text  of  the  Year-Book,  and  that  of  Hoei-shin. 
I  have  placed  it  first  in  this  volume  because  it  gives  in 
a  much  more  perfect  form  than  is  to  be  found  in  the 
memoir  of  Deguignes  the  original  report  on  which  the 
entire  investigation  is  based.  It  of  course  includes 
Professor  Neumann's  comments  on  the  monk's  brief 
narrative ;  and  as  these  embrace  many  remarks  on  the 

1  Neumann  gives  the  name  as  Hoei-schin  ;  Dr  Bretschneider,  as  Hui- 
shen.     When  not  translating  Dr  Neumann,  I  have  written  it  Ifoei-shin. 


PREFACE. 


possibility  of  passing  by  sea  from  the  Chinese  to  the 
American  coast,  I  have  thought  it  appropriate  to  place 
next  in  the  series  a  letter  from  Colonel  Barclay 
Kennon,  who,  as  a  prominent  officer  in  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey,  passed  several  years  in  the  JSTorth 
Pacific,  during  which  time  he  surveyed  and  mapped,  in 
company  with  two  colleagues,  the  entire  coast,  both  on 
the  Asiatic  and  American  sides.  Colonel  Kennon  is 
of  opinion  that  the  voyage  supposed  to  have  been 
taken  by  the  Buddhist  monks  is  easily  practicable,  and 
might  be  effected  even  in  an  open  boat — the  vessel  in 
which  he  himself  passed  both  summer  and  winter,  and 
in  which  he  sailed  more  than  40,000  miles,  having  been 
simply  a  small  pilot-boat.  To  this  I  have  added,  in 
further  reference  to  certain  remarks  by  Professor  Neu 
mann,  a  comment  on  the  affinities  between  American 
and  Asiatic  languages,  and  other  subjects  mentioned  in 
his  text,  i.e.,  the  Mound-Builders  and  the  Images  of 
Buddha.  These  are  followed  by  extracts  from,  and 
remarks  on,  a  series  of  articles  by  M.  Gustave  d'Eich- 
tlial,  contributed  to  the  Revue  Arckceologique  in 
1862-63,  in  which  he  defends  Deguignes  from  an  attack 
which  the  well-known  Orientalist  Julius  Heinrich  von 
Klaproth  made  upon  the  original  memoir  by  the  former. 
I  believe  that  -it  will  be  admitted  by  all  unprejudiced 
scholars,  that  in  these  ably-written  and  very  temperate 
articles  M.  D'Eichthal  has  fully  vindicated  Deguignes, 
and  has  also  contributed  much  very  valuable  material 
to  the  subject.  I  am  far  from  claiming  that  it 


PREFACE. 


has  been  absolutely  proved  that  Hoei-shin  was  in 
Mexico,  or  that  he  was  preceded  thither  by  "  five 
beggar-monks  from  the  Kingdom  of  Kipin."  But  it 
cannot  be  denied  that,  as  further  researches  have  been 
made,  much  which  at  first  seemed  obscure  or  impro 
bable  in  his  narrative  has  been  cleared  up.  All  that 
Hoei-shin  declares  he  saw  is  not  only  probable,  but  is 
confirmed,  almost  to  the  minutest  details,  by  what  is 
now  known  of  Old  and  New  Mexico. 

All  that  seems  fabulous  in  his  story,  he,  like  Hero 
dotus,  relates  from  hearsay ;  'but  it  is  remarkable  that 
these  wonders,  which  Professor  Neumann  was  unwilling 
'  to  cite,  all  appear  at  the  present  day  to  be  simply  exag 
gerations  of  facts  which  recent  research  has  brought  to 
light.  Among  the  objects  seen  and  described  by  the 
monk  was  the  maguey  plant,  or  great  cactus,  which  he 
called  the  Fusang,  after  a  Chinese  plant  slightly  resem 
bling  it,  and  this  name  (Fusang)  he  applied  to  the  coun 
try.  His  description  of  this  plant,  and  of  its  many  uses, 
is  very  striking.  Other  things  peculiar  to  Mexico,  but 
not  known  to  China,  were  remarked,  as,  for  instance,  the 
absence  of  iron,  and  the  fact  that  copper,  gold,  and 
silver  were  not  prized,  and  were  not  used  for  money. 
The  manner  in  which  marriage  was  contracted  in 
Fusang,  according  to  his  description,  is  not  at  all 
Chinese — I  doubt  if  it  be  Asiatic — but  it  exists  in 
more  than  one  North  American  tribe,  and  something 
very  like  it  was  observed  by  a  recent  traveller  in  New 
Mexico. 


PREFACE. 


I  have  in  Chapter  IX.  called  attention  to  a  fact 
which  seems  to  have  escaped  both  Neumann  and  Klap- 
roth,  though  both  were  familiar  with  the  literature  on 
which  it  is  based.  It  is  simply  this,  that  the  voyage  of 
Hoei-shin  forms  a  portion  of  the  somewhat  extensive 
literature  of  travel  of  Buddhist  monks,  the  authenticity 
of  which  has  been  vindicated  by  Stanislas  Julien.  Many 
of  these  have  been  translated,  and  one  of  them,  "  The 
Mission  of  Sung-yun,"  was  recently  published  in  Eng 
lish.  Sung-yun  travelled  only  nineteen  years  after 
Hoei-shin,  and  was  in  all  probability  a  contemporary 
who  had  met  him  at  the  Chinese  court,  where  such 
travellers  enjoyed  the  highest  consideration.  Sung-yun 
had  been  sent  to  India,  or  the  West,  by  'the  Empress 
Dowager  Tai-Hau,  of  the  Wei  dynasty,  and  it  is  not  im 
probable  that  Hoei-shin  had  travelled  to  the  East,  in 
like  manner,  by  imperial  order.  It  is  evident  that  he 
lived  at  a  time  when  men  of  his  stamp  were  in  request 
to  go  to  the  ends  of  the  earth  to  spread  the  doctrines  of 
Buddha.  £eA\l*^l 

In  1869,  some  one  who  had  read  or  heard  of  Neu-  ^ 
mann's  work  onTEe  Buddhist  discovery  of  America, 
placed  in  the  "  Notes  and  Queries  on  China  and  Japan," 
published  at  Hong  Kong,  a  request  that  those  who 
possessed  information  on  the  subject  would  send  it 
to  that  journal.  The  results  were,  however,  trifling, 
the  principal  communication  thus  elicited  being  an 
article  from  Dr  E.  Brefcschneider,  in  which  the  writer, 
while  expressing  his  opinion  that  Hoei-shiu  was  a 


PREFACE. 


"lying  Buddhist  priest,"  and  a  "consummate  horn- 
bug,"  brought  forth  nothing  of  consequence  to  prove  such 
very  positive  assertions.  But  as  the  paper  forms  a  por 
tion  of  the  literature  of  the  Fusang  question,  I  have 
included  it  in  this  volume. 


MEMOIR 


OF 


PROFESSOR  CARL  FRIEDRICH  NEUMANN. 


M  E  M  0  I R. 


CARL  FEIEDRICH  NEUMANN,  the  author  of  the  subjoined 
memoir  on  the  presumed  early  discovery  of  America  by 
Buddhist  monks,  was  of  Jewish  family,  and  born  Decem 
ber  22,  1798,  near  Bamberg,  Bavaria.  He  was  intended 
for  commerce,  but  having  studied  history  at  the  Uni 
versities  of  Heidelberg  and  Munich,  determined  to  de 
vote  his  life  to  letters.  Having  become  a  Protestant,  he 
was  appointed  professor  in  1822  at  the  Gymnasium  of 
Speier,  whence  he  was  dismissed  in  1825  for  Liberal 
opinions  in  politics.  He  subsequently  lived  for  several 
years  in  Venice,  Paris,  and  London,  occupied  with  the 
study  of  Oriental  languages.  Having  distinguished 
himself  as  a  sinologist,  he  went  in  1829  to  China, 
where  he  remained  nearly  two  years,  occupied  in  col 
lecting  Chinese  books.  In  Canton  he  obtained  a  valu 
able  library  of  10,000  volumes,  which,  after  his  re 
turn,  were  ceded  to  the  Bavarian  Government.  In 
1838  he  received  an  appointment  as  professor  of  the 
Chinese  and  Armenian  languages  at  the  University  of 
Munich,  where  he  also  read  lectures  on  mathematics 


xiv  MEMOIR. 


and  modern  history,  which  were  very  popular  with  the 
students.  Having  known  him  well,  both  in  public  and 
private,  and  pursued  studies  under  his  special  guidance. 
I  venture  to  speak  with  confidence  and  respect  of  hi; 
enormous  learning,  as  well  as  his  sound  judgment  it. 
matters  of  scholarship. 

Professor  Neumann  was  the  author  of  a  number  o ? 
works  in  Latin,  French,  and  English,  as  well  as  Ger 
man,  two  oi"  which  received  prizes  from  the  Academic.-; 
of  Copenhagen  and  Paris.  His  principal  books  are  the 
following  : — 

Rerum  Cretaricum  Specimen.     Gottingen,  1820. 

Ueber  die  Staatsverfassung  der  Florentiner,  von  Leonardus  Are- 
tinus.  Frankfurt,  1822. 

Historische  Versuche.     Heidelberg,  1825. 

Me' moires  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  David,  philosopho 
Armenien  du  cinquieme  siecle  de  nctre  6"  re,  et  principalement  sur 
ses  traductions  de  quelques  6crits  a  Aristote.  Paris,  1829. 

The  History  of  Vartan,  and  of  the  Battle  of  the  Armenians, 
containing  an  account  of  the  religious  wars  between  the  Persians 
and  Armenians.  By  Elisseus  ;  translated  by  C.  F.  Neumann. 
London,  1831. 

The  Catechism  of  the  Shamans,  or  the  Laws  and  Regulations 
of  the  Priesthood  of  Buddha  in  China.  Translated  from  the 
Chinese,  with  notes  and  illustrations.  London,  183]. 

History  of  the  Pirates  who  infested  the  Chinese  Seas  from 
1807  to  1810.  Translated  from  the  Chinese  original,  with  notes 
and  illustrations.  London,  1831. 

Geschichte  der  Armenischen  Literatur.     Leipzig,  1833-36. 

Geschichte  der  Uebersiedlung  von  40,000  Armeniern.  Leipziir, 
1834. 

Russland  und  die  Tcherkessen.     Stuttgart,  1840. 


MEMOIR.  xv 


Gescbiclite  des  Englisck-Chinesiscken  Kriegs.  Leipzig,  1846. 
In  this  comprehensive  work,  one  division  is  entitled,  "  Nord 
Amerika  und  Frankreich  in  China,"  in  which  the  present  and 
future  relations  of  Western  America  and  Eastern  Asia  are  de 
veloped  with  great  sagacity.  A  few  years  before  his  death, 
Iskander  (Alexander  Herzen)  wrote  to  me — "  The  Pacific  will 
yet  be  the  Mediterranean  of  the  future."  Those  who  look  forward 
to  such  developments  of  civilisation  and  commerce  will  find 
this  book  of  Professor  Neumann's  very  interesting. 

Die  Yblker  des  Siidlichen  Russland  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen 
Entwicklung.  Leipzig,  1847.  To  this  work  was  awarded  the 
prize  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  Paris. 

Die  Reisen  des  Venetianers  Marco  Polo,  Deutsch  von  August 
Biirk.  Nebst  Zusatzen  und  Verbesserungen  von  C.  F.  Neumann. 
Leipzig,  1845. 

Beitrage  zur  Armenischen  Literatur.     Leipzig,  1849. 

Geschichte  des  Englischen  Reichs  in  Asien.     Leipzig,  1857. 

Professor  Neumann  was  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
German  Oriental  Association,  and  published  in  the  first 
number  of  tbeir  magazine  a  biography  of  Dr  Morrison, 
the  celebrated  Protestant  missionary  to  China. 

I  sincerely  trust  that  the  additions  which  I  have  made 
to  this  work,  in  elucidation  or  in  illustration  of  the  idea 
advanced,  will  be  found  to  the  purpose.  They  are  the 
result  of  much  research, — I  may  honestly  say,  of  far 
more  than  appears  in  this  volume,  as  the  subject,  from 
its  obscurity,  yielded  only  the  proverbial  grain  of  wheat 
to  the  wearisome  bushel  of  chaff.  I  also  hope  that  it 
is  free  from  either  reckless  hypothesis  or  easy  credulity, 
and  that  nothing  will  be  understood  to  be  advanced 
as  being  more  than  probable. 


CONTENTS. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN,  WITH  COMMENTS  BY 
PROFESSOR  CARL  F.  NEUMANN. 

CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  AMONG  THE  CHINESE,  ...  3 

CHINESE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  LANDS  AND  NATIONS,  ....  6 

CHAPTER  II. 

IDENTITY  OF    THE  TARTARS  AND  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS  J     OR, 

THE  ROAD  TO  AMERICA,  AND  THE  PEOPLE  IN  IT,              ...  7 

TUNGUSE  EASTERN  BARBARIANS,          . '         .           .           .           .           ."           .  8 

KAMTSCHATKA  IN  THE  TIME  OF  TANG, 15 


CHAPTER  III. 

TAHAN  OR  ALIASK A,  AND  ITS  DISCOVERY,             .           .           ,           .            ,  .        24 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  FDSANG,  OR  MEXICO,        ......  25 

OF  WRITING  AND  CIVIL  REGULATIONS  IN  FUSANG,        ....  26 

THE  KINGDOM  AND  THE  NOBLES  OF  FUSANG,         .           .           .           ...  27 

MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  / ":; ,  .           .           .           .  '        27 

AMAZONIA,                                                                  ' 29 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

P.AGF 

REMARKS  ON  THE  REPORT  OF  HOEI-SHIN, 31 

THE  OLDEST  HISTORY  OF  MEXICO,   .'.....  33 

THE  RUINS  OF  MITLA  AND  PALENQUE, 34 

FUSANG,  MAGUEY,  AGAVE  AMERICANA, 37 

METALS  AND  MONEY, 36 

LAWS  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  AZTECS, 3[ 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,          . 4f 

CHAPTER  V. 

CHINESE     AND    JAPANESE     IN     KAMTSCHATKA    AND     THE    HAWAIIAN 

GROUP, 4f 

THE  FUTURE  OF  EASTERN  ASIA, 4( 


REMARKS  ON  THE  TEXT  OF  PROFESSOR  NEUMANN. 
CHAPTER  VI. 

FUSANG  AND  PERU, 49 

LETTER  FROM  COLONEL  BARCLAY  KENNON  ON  THE 
NAVIGATION  OF  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

NAVIGATION  OF  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC, (53 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

REMARKS  ON  COLONEL  KENNON's  LETTER, '81 

CHAPTER  IX. 

TRAVELS   OF   OTHER   BUDDHIST  PRIESTS  (FROM   THE   FOURTH   TO   THE 

EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D.), gr 


CONTENTS. 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,  WITH  THEIR  RELATIONS 
TO  THE  OLD  WORLD. 

CHAPTER  X. 

PAGE 
AFFINITIES  OF  AMERICAN  AND  ASIATIC  LANGUAGES,    ...  .  .  99 

CHAPTER  XL 

THE  MOUND-BUILDERS  AND  MEXICANS, 110 

CHAPTER  XII. 

MAGES  OF  BUDDHA, .  .  .  119 

THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF  THE  NARRA 
TIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

DEGUIGNES,  KLAPROTH,  AND  D'EICHTHAL,  .  '       '.  .  .  .  125 

THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 
CHAPTER  XIV. 

T.   SIMPSON  AND  DR  E.  BRETSCHNEIDER  ;   OR,  EUROPEANS  RESIDING  IN 

CHINA  ON  FUSANG,    . 161 


: 


THE 

NARRATIVE    OF    HOEI-SHIN 

WITH  COMMENTS 

BY 

PROFESSOR  CARL  F.  NEUMANN. 


CHAPTER  I. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  AMONG  THE  CHINESE. 

"  To  retain  laws  and  customs  according  to  the  tradi 
tionary  manner,  and  to  extend  these  laws  and  customs 
to  other  lands/'  was  the  precept  of  the  founders  of  the 
Celestial  Empire,  as  well  as  of  other  civilised  nations. 
"  But  this  extension,"  they  added,  "  is  not  to  be 
effected  by  the  oratorical  powers  of  single  messengers, 
nor  through  the  force  of  armed  hordes.  This  renova 
tion,  as  in  every  other  sound  organic  growth  which 
forces  itself  from  within,  can  only  take  place  when  the 
Outer  Barbarians,  irresistibly  compelled  by  the  virtue 
and  majesty  of  the  Son  of  Heaven,  blush  for  their 
barbarism,  voluntarily  obey  the  image  of  the  Heavenly 
Father,  and  become  men." 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  a  race  holding 
such  opinions  would  undertake  no  voyage  of  discovery, 
and  attempt  no  conquests.  Not  a  single  instance 
occurs  during  the  entire  four  thousand  years  of  the 
history  of  Eastern  Asia,  of  an  individual  who  had 
travelled  in  foreign  lands  for  the  purpose  of  adding  to 
his  own  information  or  that  of  others.  The  journey 
of  Lao-tse — the  founder  of  the  religion  of  the  Taosse — 


4-  * 


'  ^  '  THE  WXX&A  TIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


to  the  West  appears  to  be  a  tale  deliberately  invented 
for  the  purpose  of  connecting  his  doctrine  of  the  Primi 
tive  and  Infinite  Wisdom  with  that  of  "  The  Western 
(Mountain  of  the  Gods,"  or  with  Buddhism.  The  cam- 
|  paigns  beyond  those  limits  which  Nature  has  assigned 
to  the  Chinese  Empire,  were  undertaken  merely  through 
the  impulse  of  self-preservation.  Men  were  compelled, 
in  Central  as  in  Eastern  Asia,  in  Thibet  as  well  as  on 
the  banks  of  the  Irawaddy,  to  anticipate  the  dangers 
and  invasions  which,  at  a  later  period,  threatened  the 
freedom  of  the  Central  Empire,  and  were  frequently 
obliged  to  send  ambassadors  or  spies  into  different 
Asiatic  or  European  countries  to  obtain  information 
relating  to  their  situation  and  nature,  as  well  as  the 
condition  of  their  inhabitants,  which  could  guide  them 
in  their  subsequent  warlike  or  diplomatic  relations  with 
-the  enemies  of  the  Empire. 

This  land,  so  blessed  by  Nature,  attracted  not  only,  the 
barbarian  desirous  of  plunder,  but  also  the  merchant, 
since  certain  productions,  such  as  silk,  tea,  and  true 
rhubarb,  were  found  only  there.  The  Chinese  Govern 
ment  as  well  as  people,  influenced  by  the  precepts 
of  their  wise  men,  received  strangers  graciously  so  long 
as  they  implicitly  obeyed,  or  in  any  manner  evinced  fear 
and  submission,  and  returned  the  presents  which  were 
offered  according  to  Oriental  custom  with  others  of 
still  greater  value.  All  the  discoveries  and  experiences. 
all  the  knowledge  and  information  which  they  thus  ob 
tained  in  their  peaceful  or  warlike  relations  with  foreign 


THE  NARRA  TIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


nations,  were  generally  recorded  in  the  last  division 
of  the  "_Year-Books  "  of  their  own  chronicles,  forming, 
in  an  historical  point  of  view,  an  inestimable  treasure. 
In  the  first  century  of  our  reckoning,  the  pride  and 
vanity  induced  *by  the  Chinese  social  system  were  partly 
broken  by  the  gradual  progress  of  Buddhism  over  all 
Eastern  Asia.  He  who  believed  in  the  divine  mission  of 
the  son  of  the  King  of  Kapilapura,  must  recognise  every 
man  as  his  brother  and  equal  by  birth ;  yes,  must  strive 
— for  the  old  Buddhistic  faith  has  this  in  common  witli 
the  Christian  religion — to  extend  the  joyful  mission  of 
salvation  to  all  nations  on  earth,  and,  to  attain  this 
end,  must  suffer,  like  the  type  of  the  God  incarnate, 
all  earthly  pain  and  persecution.  So  we  find  that  a 
number  of  Buddhist  monks  and  preachers  have  at 
distant  times  wandered  to  all  known  and  unknown 
parts  of  the  world,  either  to  obtain  information  with 
regard  to  their  distant  co-religionists,  or  to  preach  the 
doctrine  of  their  Holy  Trinity  to  unbelievers.  The 
official  accounts  which  these  missionaries  rendered  of 
their  travels,  and  of  which  we  possess  several  entire, 
considered  as  sources  of  information  with  regard  to 
different  lands  and  nations,  belong  to  the  most  in 
structive  and  important  part  of  Chinese  literature. 
From  these  sources  we  have  derived  in  a  great  degree 
that  information  which  we  possess  regarding  North 
eastern  Asia  and  the  Western  Coasts  of  America,  during 
centuries  which  have  been  hitherto  veiled  in  the  deepest 
obscurity. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


CHINESE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  LANDS  AND  NATIONS. 

Pride  and  vanity  form  the  basis  upon  which  the 
Chinese  built  their  peculiar  system  of  information  re 
garding  other  lands  and  people.  Around  "  the  Flower 
of  the  Centre,"  as  their  sages  teach,  dwell  rude  un 
civilised  races,  which  are  in  reality  animals,  although 
they  have  externally  human  forms.  To  these  rough 
brutes  they  apply  all  manner  of  abusive  epithets, 
assigning  to  them  the  names  of  dogs,  swine,  devils, 
and  savages,  according  to  the  four  points  of  the  com 
pass  whence  they  came.  The  occasional  inquirers  and 
writers  of  history  among  the  Europeans  who  have 
thought  it  worth  their  while  to  cast  a  glance  upon  the 
as  yet  fallow  fields  of  Eastern  and  Central  Asiatic 
history,  have  blindly  followed  this  limited  system,  which 
rests  upon  the  narrowest  geographic  limits,  so  that 
races  originally  without  connection  were  melted  into 
one  and  the  same  people ;  as,  for  instance,  the  numer 
ous  tribes  of  the  Tartar  family. 


1 


CHAPTER  II. 

IDENTITY  OF  THE  TARTARS  AND  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS  ; 
OR,  THE  ROAD  TO  AMERICA,  AND  THE  PEOPLE  IN  IT. 

THE  Tunguse,  Mongolians,  and  a  great  part  of  the 
Turkish  race,  formed  originally,  according  to  all  ex 
ternal  organic  tokens,  as  well  as  the  elements  of  their 
languages,  but  one  people,  closely  allied  with  the 
Esquimaux,  the  Shrilling,  or  dwarf  of  the  Norsemen, 
and  the  races  of  the  New  World.  This  is  the  irrefut 
able  result  to  which  all  the  more  recent  inquiries 
in  anatomy  and  physiology,  as  well  as  compara 
tive  philology  and  history,  have  conduced.  All  the 
aboriginal  Americans  have  those  distinctive  tokens 
which  forcibly  recall  their  neighbours  dwelling  on 
the  other  side  of  Behring's  Straits.  They  have  the 
four-cornered  head,  high  cheek-bones,  heavy  jaws,  large 
angular  eye-cavities,  and  a  retreating  forehead.  The 
skulls  of  the  oldest  Peruvian  graves  exhibit  the  same 
tokens  as  the  heads  of  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Oregon 
and  California.  The  different  American  languages,  as 
has  been  already  proved  by  Albert  Gallatin  in  his 
minute  researches,  have  such  an  identity,  that  we  can, 
however  varied  the  vocabulary,  at  once  reduce  them  to 


8  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

one  original  source.1  In  fact,  all  researches  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  America  was  first  populated  lead  to 
one  inevitable  conclusion.  Since  the  earth  has  been 
inhabited,  these  rude  tribes  dwelt  in  their  separate 
divisions  of  Asia  and  America.  'This  rough  mass  has, 
however,  during  the  course  of  centuries,  been  separated 
by  different  corporeal  and  mental  formative  influences 
into  different  nations,  each  with  peculiar  bodily  dis 
tinctions,  the  natural  consequence  of  higher  mental  in 
fluences  ;  and  various  languages  have  been  developed  ; 
yet  all  of  these  distinctions,  whether  of  body  or  of 
language,  of  manner  or  custom,  present  internal  evi 
dence  of  an  original  unity.  This  unity  manifests 
itself  in  their  genealogies,  the  oldest  historical  system 
of  all  nations  by  which  the  identity  of  the  Turks, 
Mongolians,  and  Tunguse  is  clearly  proved.  Among 
these  Tartaric  hordes  we  find  absolutely  the  same 
relation  as  that  which  existed  among  the  German 
nations.  The  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths,  the  West- 
phalians,  the  northern  and  southern  nations,  belonged 
originally,  notwithstanding  their  different  destinies  and 
culture,  to  the  internal  being  of  one  and  the  same  Ger 
man  race. 

TUNGUSE   EASTERN   BARBARIANS. 

All    the   numerous   Tartaric   hordes    dwelling   about 
the  north-east  of  the  Central  Empire  were  termed  by       | 

1  Vide  Memoires  de  la  Soci<5t<5  des  Antiquaires  de  1'Amerique  du  JxTord, 
Partie  linguistique  rapport  fait  a  1'Iustitut  Ilistorique,  par  M.  Antonio 
Renzi,  Paris,  1842,  8vo. 


THE  NARRA  TIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIX.  9 

the  civilised  natives  of  the  South  "  Tonghu,"  "  Eastern 
Red  Men,"  or  savages,  from  which  appellation  we  de 
rive  our  word  Tuuguse,1  which  has  been  subsequently 
applied  to  an  extremely  limited  portion  of  the  entire 
race.  Among  these  Mongolian  nations,  many  centuries 
before  Zenghis  Khan  (Tschinggs  Chakan),  the  Mongo 
lians  proper  were  distinguished  by  the  differently -written 
name  of  Wog  or  Mog,  and  divided  into  seven  hordes, 
dwelling  in  different  places,  extending  from  the  Corean 
Peninsula  to  the  distant  north,  over  the  river  Amo  to 
the  eastern  sea ;  that  is  to  say,  to  the  Gulf  of  Anadir 
or  Behring's  Straits.  The  nomadic  tribes  dwelling  more 
directly  to  the  north  they  termed  Peti,  or  Northern 
Savages,  and  many  tribes  were  reckoned  by  them  as 
belonging  either  to  the  Tunguse  or  Peti.  During  the 
course  of  many  centuries  the  Chinese  acquired  a  sur 
prisingly  accurate  knowledge  of  the  north-east  coast  of 
Asia,  extending,  as  their  records  in  astronomy  and 
natural  history  prove,  to  the  sixty-fifth  degree  of 
latitude,  and  even  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.2  Among  other  / 
accounts,  they  tell  us  of  a  land  very  far  from  the  Cen 
tral  Kingdom,  whose  inhabitants,  termed  Kolihan  or 
Chorran,  sent  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh 
century  ambassadors  to  the  Court  at  Singan.  This 
land  lay  on  the  North  Sea ;  and  still  further  to  the 
north,  on  the  other  side  of  that  sea,  the  days  were,  so 

1  In  the  "  Shajrat  ul  Atrak,"  or  Genealogical  Tree  of  the  Turks  and 
Tartars,  translated  by  Colonel  Miles,  London,  1838,  Tuny  or  Tungiis  is 
rendered  "  son  of  a  Tartar." 

2  Gaubil  :  Observations  Mathematiques,  Paris,  1732,  ii.  110. 


io  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

long,  and  the  nights  in  proportion  so  short,  that  the 
sun  set  and  rose  again  "  before  one  could  roast  a  leg  of 
mutton." 

The  Chinese  were  well  acquainted  with  the  customs 
of  these  tribes,  and  describe  them  to  us  as  resembling 
the  Tsohuktschi  or  Koljuschens2  of  the  present  day, 
and  other  tribes  of  North-eastern  Asia  and  North 
western  America.  They  had  neither  oxen,  sheep,  nor 
other  domestic  animals,  but  there  were  tribes  among 
them  which  employed  deer,  which  were  there  very  nume 
rous.  These  deer  of  which  they  speak  were  undoubt 
edly  reindeer.  They  knew  nothing  of  agriculture,  but 
lived  by  hunting  and  fishing,  as  well  as  on  the  root  of 
a  certain  plant  which  grew  there  in  abundance.  Their 
dwellings  were  constructed  of  twigs  and  wood,  their 
clothes  were  made  of  furs  and  feathers.  They  laid 
their  dead  in  coffins,  which  they  placed  in  trees  in  the 
mountains.3  They  were  ignorant  of  any  subdivisions 
of  the  year.  The  Chinese  were  also  as  well  acquainted 
with  those  dwelling  more  directly  to  the  east,  as  with 
these  inhabitants  of  the  north. 

The  limits  of  the  Chinese  Empire  extended,  under  the 

1  Mantuanlin,  bk.  348,  p.  6. 

2  Koljwtchi,  or  Koljiiki,  signifies  the  peg  or  pin  which  those  savages 
•wear  in  the  under  lip,  and  from  which  the  name  is  derived.     They  were 
subsequently  termed  by  the  Eussians,  who  possess  the  land,   Galloches, 
from  the  French  word,  merely  in  jest.     In  the  course  of  time  this  name 
supplanted  the  earlier   term  Koljuken,  so  that  all  are  now  known  as 
Kaloschen. ' 

3  This  is  similar  to  the  custom  of  many  North  American  Indians  of  the 
West.— C.  G.  L. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  n 

dynasty  of  Tsclien,  in  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon, 
to  the  Eastern  Ocean.  They  knew  and  frequented  the 
numerous  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  for  the  I 
sake  of  trade.  The  natives  inhabiting  these  islands  sent, 
on  their  part,  messengers  to  the  coast  with  presents, 
which  are  registered  in  the  Chinese  annals.  It  also 
frequently  happened  that  China  sent  a  portion  of  its 
discontented  or  superfluous  population  to  these  thinly- 
inhabited  islands,  as  well  as  to  Japan,  Lieu-kuei,  and 
Formosa,  of  which  we  have  accurate  historical  proofs. 
The  tribe  of  the  Ainos,  or  Jebis,  extending  from  Japan 
to  Kamtschatka,  over  the  Kurilean  and  Aleutian,  or  Fox 
Islands,  to  the  distant  north,  where  it  touched  upon  the 
nearly-allied  Esquimaux,  must  naturally  have  astonished 
the  occasional  colonists  and  merchants  who  found  their 
way  thither,  by  a  singular  distinctive  bodily  phenomenon, 
namely,  an  exceeding  growth  of  hair  on  their  bodies. 
Such  was  the  case,  and  they  were  termed  Mau-scJdn^ 
(or,  according  to  the  Japanese  mode  of  pronouncing 
Chinese  writing,  Mosiii) — i.e..  Hairy  People,  and  also, 
from  the  great  number  of  sej^rabs  found  in  their  region, 
Hi-ai  (in  Japanese,  Jeso),  or  Crab-Barbarians.1  And 
as  these  barbarians,  like  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern 
islands,  were  in  thejiabit  of  tattooing  figures  upon  their 
skin,  they  were  also  termed  by  the  Chinese  Wen-sckin, 
or  Painted  People.  In  the  course  of  time  other  names 
were  also  added,  but  any  one  acquainted  with  the  nature 

1  Description  of  the  Kurilean   and  Aleutian  Islands  (translated  from 
the  Russian),  Ulm,  1792,  p.  16. 


12  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

of  that  part  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants,  readily 
recognises,  despite  the  varied  appellations,  the  same 
race  of  men  in  the  Ainos.  We  are  indebted  to  the 
numerous  embassies  which  in  earlier  times  passed  be 
tween  China  and  ^ Japan  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
information  contained  in  their  Year-Books,  relating  to 
the  north  and  south-easterly  islands  and  nations.  These 
embassies  brought  back  with  them  many  traditionary 
accounts,  which  were  strongly  tinged  with  fable,  and 
yet  not  entirely  devoid  of  truth.  For  instance,  when 
they  speak  of  the  land  of  Tschutschu,  or  dwarfs,  very 
far  to  the  south  of  Japan,  whose  inhabitants,  black 
and  ugly  and  naked,  kill  and  devour  all  strangers,  we 
readily  recognise  the  natives  of  Papua  or  New  Guinea. 
|  The  Ainos  were  first  described,  under  the  name  of 
;  Hairy  People,  in  "  The  Book  of  Mountains  and  Seas," 
a  Chinese  work,  written  in  the  second  or  third  cen 
tury,  and  richly  adorned  with  wonderful  legends.  They 
dwelt,  according  to  this  book,  in  the  Eastern  Sea,  and 
were  completely  overgrown  with  hair.1  Some  of  these 
people  came,  A.D.  659,  in  company  with  a  Japanese 
embassy,  to  China ;  they  are  termed  in  the  Year-Book 
of  Tang,  "  Crab-Barbarians,"2  after  which  this  note 
follows  : — "  They  had  long  beards,  and  dwelt  in  the 

1  Schan-hai-king,  quoted  in  the  "  Histoire  des  Trois  Royaumes,  traduite 
par  Titsingh."      Klaproth  Las,  according  to  his  custom,  passed  off  the 
translation  as  his  own.     Paris,  1832,  p.  218. 

2  Tang-schu,  or,  '•  Year-Books  of  Tang,"  bk.  220,  p.  18,  v.    Mantuanlin, 
bk.  326,  p.  23,  v.,  where  the  report  as  usual  is  given.     Tit  sin  gh  :  Annales 
des  Empereurs  du  Japon,  Paris,  1834,  p.  52.     This  is  a  remarkable  coin 
cidence  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  Year-Books. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HO  El- SHIN.  13 

north-east  of  Japan ;  they  laid  bows,  arrows,  and  deer 
skins  as  presents  before  the  throne.  These  were  the 
inhabitants  of  Jeso,  which  island  had,  not  long  before, 
been  subdued  and  rendered  tributary  by  the  Japanese." 
The  report  of  the  Japanese  embassy,  in  their  own 
domestic  returns,  is,  however,  much  more  copious  and 
satisfactory.  The  queries  of  the  Heaven's  Son  of  Tang, 
and  the  replies  of  the  Japanese  ambassador,  are  there 
narrated  as  follows  : — 

The  Ruler  of  Tang. — "  Does  the  heavenly  Autocrat  find  him 
self  in  constant  tranquillity  ] " 

The  Ambassador. — "  Heaven  and  earth  unite  their  gifts,  and 
constant  tranquillity  ensues." 

The  Euler  of  Tang. — "  Are  the  Government  officers  well 
appointed  ? " 

The  Ambassador. — "  They  have  the  grace  of  the  Heavenly 
Ruler,  and  are  well." 

The  Ruler  of  Tang. — "  Is  there  internal  peace  1" 

The  Ambassador. — "  The  Government  harmonises  with  heaven 
and  earth — the  people  have  no  care." 

The  Ruler  of  Tang. — "  Where  lies  the  land— this  Jeso  ?" 

The  Ambassador. — "  To  the  north-east." 

The  Ruler  of  Tang. — "  How  many  divisions  has  it  ?" 

The  Ambassador. — "  Three;  the  most  distant  we  call  Tsgaru, 
the  next  Ara,  and  the  nearest  Niki.  To  the  last  belong  these 
men  here  before  us.  They  appear  yearly  with  their  tribute  at 
the  court  of  our  king." 

The  Ruler  of  Tang. — "  Does  this  land  produce  corn  ?" 

The  Ambassador. — "No;  its  inhabitants  live  on  flesh/' 

The  Ruler  of  Tang.—l(  Have  they  houses  1" 

The  Ambassador. — "No;  they  live  in  the  mountains,  under 
trunks  of  trees." 


14  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

This  extract  is  from  the  Nipponki,  or  Japanese 
Annals,  from  661  until  696,  which  were  collected  in  the 
year  720.  They  embrace  thirty  volumes  octavo.  The 
portions  translated  by  Hoffman  are  to  be  found  in 
vol.  xxvi.  p.  9;  of  Siebold's  "  Japanese  Archives,"  viii. 
130. 

Since  this  time,  in  the  seventh  century,  many  wars 
Lave  been  undertaken  against  these  northern  border  bar 
barians  by  their  more  civilised  neighbours,  and  generally 
with  success.  But  the  inhabitants  of  Jeso  always  rose 
again  after  a  short  time,  drove  forth  the  Japanese  inva 
ders  from  the  land,  and  gave  themselves  up  again  to 
their  wild,  original  freedom,  like  their  ancestors  on  the 
neighbouring  island.  Even  at  the  present  day  the 
Japanese  govern  only  a  very  small  portion  of  Jeso,  i.e., 
the  gold  district  of  this  remarkably  rich  island.  Jeso 
readily  leads  to  an  acquaintance  with  Kamtschatka, 
which  country  was  also  described  about  the  same  period, 
in  the  following  manner  : l — 

1  Vide  Steller's  Description  of  Kamtschatka,  Leipzig,  1734,  p.  3.  All 
that  occurs  here  in  quotation  marks  has  been  literally  translated  from 
the  Year-Books  of  Tang  (Tang-schu,  bk.  220,  p.  19,  v.)  The  part  not 
thus  marked  is  drawn  principally  from  Steller,  and  is  added  for  explana 
tion.  The  article  of  Mantuanlin  (bk.  347,  p.  5),  may  be  compared  with 
the  Year-Books  of  Tang.  The  article  is  indeed  evidently  borrowed  from 
the  Tang-schu,  but  is  much  better  arranged,  and  contains  many  original 
incidents,  on  which  account  I  have  freely  availed  myself  of  it.  The  com 
piler  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Kang-hi "  (Juen-kien-hui-han)  satisfied  him 
self  (bk.  241,  p.  19),  as  he  frequently  did,  with  merely  transcribing  from 
Mautuaulin. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  15 


KAMTSCHATKA  IN  THE  TIME  OF  TANG. 

Lieu-kuei  (Loo-choo),  or  Hing-goci,  as  the  Kamts- 
chadales  of  the  present  day  term  their  fellow-country 
men  dwelling  on  the  Penschinisch  Bay,  is  situated, 
according  to  the  Chinese  Year- Books,  fifteen  thousand 
Chinese  miles  distant  from  the  capital,  which,  according 
to  the  measurement  of  the  celebrated  astronomer  Ihan, 
in  the  time  of  Tang,  gives  about  three  hundred  and 
thirty-eight  to  one  of  our  grades — the  Chinese  grades 
being  rather  smaller  than  our  geographical.  Now, 
Sigan,  the  capital  of  China  during  the  dynasty  of  Tang, 
lies  in  the  district  Schensi,  34°  15'  34"  north  latitude, 
and  106°  34'  east  longitude  from  Paris.  Peter  and 
Paul's  Haven,  on  the  contrary,  according  to  Preuss,  lies 
53°  0'  59"  north  latitude,  and  153°  19'  56"  east  longitude 
from  Paris.  These  are  differences  which  the  accounts 
of  the  Chinese  Year-Books  establish  in  an  astonishing 
manner,  and  leave  no  doubt  whatever  as  to  the  identity 
of  Kamtschatka  with  Lieu-kuei ;  for  it  is  certainly  satis 
factory  if  estimates  of  such  great  distances,  drawn  in 
all  probability  from  the  accounts  of  half-savage  sailors 
or  quite  savage  natives,  should  agree  within  two  or 
three  grades  with  accurate  astronomic  results. 

"  This  land  lies  exactly  north-east  from  the  Black 
River,  or  Black  Dragon  River,  and  the  Moko,  and  the 
voyage  thither  requires  fifteen  days,  which  is  the  time 
in  which  the  Moko  generally  effect  it." 


16  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

The  Moko  here  alluded  to  are,  beyond  doubt,  the 
Mongolians,  who  governed  in  earlier  ages,  and  even  in 
the  time  of  Tang  as  far  south  as  Corea,  and  in  the 
north  as  far  as  the  other  side  of  the  Amur.  The  west 
ern  limits  of  this  people  are  unknown.  In  the  east 
they  dwelt,  as  our  chronicle  expressly  remarks,  as  far 
as  the  ocean,  or  the  Pacific,  from  whence  they  could 
very  easily  pass  to  the  islands  and  to  the  American 
Continent.  That  this  was  in  reality  effected,  is  evident 
from  their  external  appearance,  as  well  as  the  affinity 
between  the  Mongolian  language  and  that  of  the  Ame 
rican  Indians.  The  distance  from  Ocho-tock  to  the 
opposite  peninsula  is  about  150  German  miles,  and,  in 
fact,  the  natives  generally  require  from  ten  to  fifteen 
days  to  make  the  voyage. 

"  Lieu-kuei  lies  to  the  north  of  the  North  Sea,1  by 
which  it  is  on  three  sides  surrounded.  To  the  north 
this  peninsula  touches  upon  the  land  of  Jetschay,  or 
Tschuktschi,  but  the  exact  limits  are  not  easy  to  deter 
mine  ;  it  requires  an  entire  month  to  make  the  journey 
from  Kamtschatka  to  Jetschay.  Beyond  this  the  land 
is  unexplored,  and  no  mission  has  as  yet  come  from 
thence  to  the  Central  Kingdom.  Here  are  neither  for- 

1  In  Tang-sclm  an  error  of  transcription  occurs.  Instead  of  Pe-hai, 
North  Sea,  we  have  Schao-hai,  "little  sea."  The  correct  reading  is  to  be 
found  in  the  two  encyclopaedias  already  quoted.  Jetschaykno,  a  kingdom, 
here  "  an  excellent  country  ; "  the  Jetschay  is  only  to  be  found  in  the 
encyclopaedias.  The  arrogant  Chinese  love  to  write  the  names  of  foreigners 
with  names  which  indicate  scorn  aid  contempt.  Lieu-kuei,  for  example, 
signifies  "  the  devil  who  runs  through,"  and  Jetschay,  "  the  devil's  com 
panion." 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIX. 


tified  places  nor  towns  ;  the  people  dwell  in  scattered 
groups  on  the  sea-islands  and  along  the  shore,  or  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  where  they  live  by  catching  and  salting 
fish. 

Steller  also  assures  us  that  the  dwellings  of  the  Itol- 
men,  or  native  Kamtschadales,  are  always  situated  on 
rivers,  bays,  or  the  mouths  of  the  lesser  streams,  and 
especially  in  places  which  are  surrounded  by  woods. 
Fish  in  incredible  quantities,  and  in  great  variety,  are 
found  there,  serving  during  the  long  winters  as  pro 
vender  for  both  men  and  cattle.  These  they  prepare 
in  many  ways,  but  principally  by  salting.  Those  living 
still  more  to  the  north  subsist  almost  entirely  on  the 
same  food,  from  which  they  receive  the  name  Eskimantik 
or  Eskimo,  i.e.,  "  raw-fish-eating." 

"  They  dwell  in  caves,  generally  dug  tolerably  deep 
in  the  earth,  around  "which  they  lay  thick,  unhewn 
planks." 

This  is  applicable  only  to  their  winter  dwellings  ; 
their  summer  habitations  are  built  high  in  the  air, 
on  posts  like  our  dovecots.  The  Itolmen  dig  out  the 
earth  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet  in  the  form  of  a 
brick,  and  to  such  an  extent  as  the  number  of  their 
family  may  require.  The  excavated  earth  they  pile  to 
the  height  of  two  or  three  feet  around  the  pit  thus 
formed,  and  then  roof  it  with  pieces  of  bark  or  willow 
sticks,  five  or  six  feet  long,  which  they  drive  deep 
within  the  pit  into  the  earth,  so  that  the  tops  are  all 
equally  high.  Between  these  sticks  and  the  earth  they 


1 8  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

generally  lay  dry  straw,  so  that  none  of  the  earth  may 
fall  through,  nor  any  of  the  articles  in  the  dwelling 
become  rusty  or  mouldy  by  direct  contact  with  it ;  then 
they  leave  a  shelf  of  earth  around,  about  a  foot  broad, 
and  lay  great  beams  thereon  in  squares,  which  they 
support  on  the  outside  with  planks  and  sticks  stuck 
into  the  ground,  so  that  they  may  not  give  way  exter 
nally.  Then  they  place  over  them  four  posts  cut  in  the 
form  of  forks,  as  high  as  they  wish  to  have  the  lodg 
ing  in  the  middle. 

Over  this  they  lay  again  crosswise  four  beams,  and 
fasten  them  with  thongs  to  the  posts,  upon  which  they 
lay  on  every  side  the  rafters.  Between  these  rafters 
they  put  thin  sticks,  and  across  these  small  pieces  of 
wood,  quite  close  together ;  this  entire  wooden  roof 
they  cover  to  the  depth  of  six  inches  with  straw,  shake 
over  it  the  remnant  of  the  excavated  earth,  and  tread 
it  down  firm.  In  the  middle  of  the  house  they  make 
the  hearth  between  four  thin  posts ;  of  these  posts, 
two  form  the  entrance,  which  is  at  the  same  time  the 
chimney.  Opposite  the  fireplace  they  dig  out  an  air- 
passage  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  long,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  house,  which  passes  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
dwelling  itself.  This  is  kept  closed,  except  when  they 
are  making  a  fire.  To  facilitate  the  admission  of  air 
they  build  the  roof  of  the  air-passage  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  wind  continually  strikes  against  it,  and  is 
drawn  in.  If  any  one  would  enter,  he  must  naturally 
descend  the  door- chimney,  which  is  done  either  by 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIX.  19 

means  of  a  ladder,  or  the  notched  trunk  of  a  tree.  The 
smoky  atmosphere  is  very  oppressive  to  a  European, 
though  the  natives  support  it  without  inconvenience. 
The  little  children  generally  creep  through  the  draft, 
which  also  serves  as  a  repository  for  cooking  utensils. 
In  the  interior,  cubes  of  wood  are  placed,  to  indicate 
the  divisions  of  the  separate  sleeping-places. 

"  The  climate,  owing  to  fogs  and  heavy  snows,  is  very 
severe.  The  natives  are  all  clothed  in  furs,  which  they 
obtain  by  hunting.  They  also  prepare  a  sort  of  cloth 
from  dog's-hair  and  different  species  of  grass.  In  winter 
they  wear  the  skins  of  swine  and  reindeer ;  in  summer, 
those  of  fish.  They  have  great  numbers  of  dogs." 

We  know  that  the  climate  of  Kamtschatka  presents 
remarkable  differences.  Districts  situated  at  no  great 
distance  from  each  other  have  at  the  same  season  a 
different  temperature.  The  southern  part  of  the  penin 
sula  is  damper,  darker,  and  more  exposed  to  terrible 
storm-winds,  on  account  of  its  vicinity  to  the  sea;  but 
the  farther  north  we  ascend  on  the  Pensinischen  Bay, 
so  much  the  milder  are  the  winds  in  winter,  and  so 
much  the  less  rain  falls  in  summer.  In  no  land  are 
the  fogs  so  frequent  and  so  thick  as  in  Kamtschatka, 
nor  is  any  country  known  where  deeper  snows  fall  than 
between  51°  and  54°  of  the  peninsula.  The  natives, 
therefore,  naturally  require  the  heavy  sea-dog  (seal)  and 
reindeer  fur-clothing  spoken  of  in  the  Chinese  chronicle. 
The  women  prepare  from  dried  nettles  and  other  grasses 
a  sort  of  linen  which  serves  for  all  domestic  purposes. 


20  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

Reindeer,  black  bears,  wolves,  foxes,  and  other  animals 
are  found  here  in  abundance,  and  are  caught  by  a  variety 
of  ingenious  methods,  which  the  Chinese  have  also  de 
scribed.  Dogs,  which  they  use  instead  of  horses  to 
draw  their  sledges,  are  their  only  tame  animals.  It  is  an 
error  of  the  Chinese  writer  when  he  speaks  of  swine : 
they  would  indeed  succeed  in  this  country,  but  in  the 
time  of  Steller  they  were  as  yet  unknown.  Even  at 
the  present  day  several  of  the  north-easterly  Man- 
tchou  tribes  clothe  themselves  in  fish-skins,  for  which 
reason  they  are  termed  by  the  Chinese  Jupi,  or  Fish- 
skins.  These,  like  the  Chadschen,  belong  to  the 
Aleutes. 

"  The  people  have  no  regular  constitution;  they  know 
nothing  of  officers  and  laws.  If  there  is  a  robber  in 
the  land,  all  of  the  inhabitants  assemble  together  to 
judge  him.  They  know  nothing  of  the  divisions  and 
courses  of  the  four  seasons.  Their  bows  are  about  four 
feet  long,  and  their  arrows  are  like  those  of  the  Middle 
Kingdom.  They  prepare  from  bones  and  stones  a  sort 
of  musical  instrument ;  they  love  singing  and  dancing. 
They  place  their  dead  in  the  hollow  trunks  of  trees,  and 
mourn  for  them  three  years,  without  wearing  any  mourn 
ing-clothes.  In  the  year  C40,  during  the  reign  of  the 
second  Heaven's  Son  of  Tang,  came  the  first  and  last 
tribute-bringing  embassy  from  the  land  of  Lieu-kuei 
to  the  Middle  Kingdom." 

Before  the  conquest  of  their  land  by  the  Russians, 
the  Kamtschadales  lived  in  a  sort  of  community,  such 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  21 

as  is  generally  found  among  all  primitive  tribes,  as,  for 
example,  the  early  Germans.  Every  one  revenged  his 
own  wrongs  with  the  readiest  weapons — such  as  bows, 
arrows,  and  bone-spears.  In  war  they  chose  a  leader 
wiiose  authority  ceased  with  it.  In  case  of  theft,  where 
the  offender  was  unknown,  the  elders  called  the  people 
together,  and  advised  them  to  give  him  up.  When  this 
proved  unsuccessful,  death  and  destruction  were  gene 
rally  invoked  upon  his  head  by  means  of  their  Shamanic 
sorcery.  They  divide  the  entire  solar  year  into  summer 
and  winter,  but  are  ignorant  of  any  division  of  time 
into  days  and  weeks,  and  few  are  able  to  count  above 
forty.  They  pass  their  time  principally  in  dancing, 
singing,  and  relating  tales  and  legends.  Their  songs 
and  melodies,  several  of  which  are  given  in  Steller,  are 
remarkably  soft  and  agreeable.  "  When  I  compare," 
says  this  excellent  writer,  "  the  songs  of  the  great 
Orlando  Lasso,  with  which  the  King  of  France  was  so 
much  delighted  after  the  Parisian  Bloody  Marriage, 
with  these  airs  of  the  Itolmen,  I  am  compelled,  so  far 
as  agreeableness  is  concerned,  to  give  the  latter  the 
preference."  The  Chinese  account  of  the  three  years  of 
mourning  is  groundless  ;  at  least,  when  the  Russians 
first  discovered  Kamtschatka,  nothing  of  the  kind 
existed.  The  sick  were  thrown,  when  beyond  all  hope 
of  recovery,  to  the  dogs,  even  while  yet  alive,  and  any 
thing  like  mourning  or  lamenting  from  their  surviving 
relatives  was  seldom  even  thought  of.  It  is,  however, 
possible,  if  not  probable,  that  since  the  seventh  century, 


22  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

the  manners  of  the  Kamtschadales  have  much  changed, 
or  deteriorated. 

The  situation  of  the  Wen-schin,  or  Painted  People, 
if  we  are  to  credit  the  account  regarding  their  distance 
from  Japan,  must  be  sought  for  to  the  east  of  Kam- 
tschatka,  and  within  the  Aleutian  group  of  islands. 
"  The  land  of  Wen-schin,"  says  the  Year-Book  of  the 
Southern  Dynasty,  "  is  situated  about  7000  Chinese 
miles  (or  twenty  of  our  geographical  degrees)  to  the 
north-east  of  Japan,"  l  a  direction  and  distance  which 
places  us  in  the  midst  of  the  Aleutian  or  Fox  group  of 
islands.  It  is  not  readily  intelligible  how  Deguigne? 
could  seek  and  find  these  Painted  People  on  the  Island 
of  Jeso.2 

"  Their  bodies  are  usually  covered  with  a  variety 
of  figures  of  animals  and  the  like.  On  the  forehead 
they  have  three  lines  :  the  long  and  straight  indicate 
the  nobles,  the  small  and  crooked  the  common  people." : 

The  Aleutian  or  Fox  Islanders,  before  their  conversion 
to  Christianity,  not  only  cut,  as  is  well  known,  a  variety 

1  Nausse,  i.e.,  History  of  the  Southern  Dynasties,  bk.   79,  p.  5.     The 
same  article  is  to  be  found  in  Leang-schu,  i.e.,  in  the  Year-Book  of  Leang, 
bk.  54,  p.  19,  and  by  Mantuanlin,  bk.  327,  p.  2. 

2  Memoires  de  1' Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres,  xxxviii. 
506.     This  is  not  the  only  error  which  this  writer,  so  excellent  in  other 
respects,  has  made  in  this  treatise. 

3  While  engaged  on  this  re-edition  of  Professor  Neumann's  work  (Lon 
don,    March    1874),   I   have   frequently  seen   two  very  curious    Chinese 
figures,   carved  from  wood,  representing  Aleutian  Islanders.      The  faces 
are   smooth,   but  the   garment,    or  external  figure,   ingeniously  adapted 
from  some  wood  covered  with  a  long  fibre,  gives  them  a  very  wild,  hairy 
appearance. — C.  G.  L. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  23 

of  figures  upon  the  body,  but  also  bored  the  cartilage 
of  the  nose,  and  through  it  stuck  a  pin,  upon  which 
they  placed,  on  festive  occasions,  glass  beads.  The 
women,  for  a  similar  purpose,  bored  the  ear.  More 
over,  they  made  cuts  in  the  under  lip,  in  which  they 
wore  needles  of  stone  or  bone,  about  two  inches  long. 


CHAPTER  III. 

AND  ITS  DISCOVERY. 

DURING  the  dynasty  of  Leang,  in  the  first  half  of  the 
sixth  century,  the  Chinese  often  heard  of  a  land 
situated  5000  of  their  miles  to  the  eastward  of 
the  Painted  People,  who  dwelt  in  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
and  named  it  Tahau,  or  Great  China.  The  direction 
and  distance  indicate  the  great  peninsula  Aliaska. 
They  probably  named  it  Great  China  from  their  having 
heard  of  the  continent  which  extends  beyond.  It  was 
in  a  precisely  similar  manner,  according  to  the  legend, 
that  the  Irish,  who  in  earlier  ages,  long  before  the  time 
of  Columbus,  were  cast  away  on  the  American  shores, 
named  the  country  Great  Ireland.1  They  reported  that 
the  newly-discovered  nation  altogether  resembled  the 
Painted  People,  but  spoke  an  entirely  different  lan 
guage.  The  Tahan  bore  no  weapons,  and  knew  nothing 
of  war  and  strife.2 

Beyond  Aliaska  the   Chinese  discovered,  at  the  end 
of  the  fifth  century,  a  land  which  Deguignes,  in  fact, 

1  Miinchener  Gelehrte   Anzeigen,    viii.   636.       This    must    Lave   been 
the  land   extending  from   the   two   Carolinas  to  the   southern    point  of 
Florida. 

2  Leang-scliu  and  Mantuanliu,  a.  a.  o. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIX.  25 

afterwards  sought  for  on  the  north-west  part  of  the 
American  Continent.  The  conjecture  of  that  keen 
witted  scholar  was  subsequently  fully  verified,  and 
we  are  now  able  to  determine  those  parts  of  America 
described  by  the  Chinese.  The  zealous  inquiries 
relating  to  a  state  of  civilisation  long  passed  away, 
and  to  such  of  its  remains  as  yet  exist  in  the  New 
World,  have  led  in  our  days  to  results  of  which  the 
inquirer  of  the  eighteenth  century  could  have  had.  no 
intimation.  We  will  now  give  a  literal  translation  o£ 
the  Chinese  report,  and  afterwards  its  explanation. 


"  During  the  reign  of  the  dynasty  Tsi,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  year-naming,  '  Everlasting  Origin  '  (A.D. 
499),  came  a  Buddhist  priest  from  this  kingdom,  who 
bore  the  cloister-name  of  Hoei-schiu,  i.e.,  Universal 
Compassion,1  to  the  present  district  of  Hukuang,  and 
those  surrounding  it,  who  narrated  that  Fusang  is 
about  twenty  thousand  Chinese  miles  in  an  easterly 
direction  from  Tahan,  and  east  of  the  Middle  Kingdom. 
Many  Fusang  trees  grow  there,  whose  leaves  resemble 
the  Dryanda  cordifolia ; 2  the  sprouts,  on  the  contrary, 

1  According  to  King-tschu  it  signifies   "an  old  name."     Kiug-tschu  is 
the  sixth  of  the  nine  provinces  which  are  described  in  the  tax-roll  of  Ju, 
which  contains  the  sixth  of  the  included  divisions  of  the  Annual  Book.     It 
extended  from  the  north  side  of  the  hill  King.     Compare  Hongiugta,  the 
celebrated  expounder  of  King  in  the  times  of  Tang,  with  the  already- 
mentioned  extracts  from  the  Annual  or  Year-Book. 

2  In  the  Leang-schu  we  find  an  error  in  the  writing  (a  very  common 


26  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

resemble  those  of  the  "bamboo-tree,1  and  are  eaten  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  land.  The  fruit  is  like  a  pear 
in  form,  but  is  red.  From  the  bark  they  prepare  a 
sort  of  linen  which  they  use  for  clothing,  and  also  a 
sort  of  ornamented  stuff."  (With  regard  to  this,  the 
Year- Books  of  Leang  have  a  variation:  instead  of  the 
character  KIN  (11,  492  B.),  meaning  "  embroidered 
stuff,"  or  embroidered  and  ornamented  stuff  in  general, 
we  have  MIEN,  which  signifies  "fine  silk.")  " The  houses 
are  built  of  wooden  beams  ;  fortified  and  walled  places 
are  there  unknown." 

OF    W1UTING  AND    CIVIL   REGULATIONS    IN    FUSANG. 

"  They  have  written  characters  in  this  land,  and  pre 
pare  paper  from  the  bark  of  the  Fusang.  The  people 
have  no  weapons,  and  make  no  wars  ;  but  in  the  arrange 
ments  for  the  kingdom  they  have  a  northern  and  a 
southern  prison.  Trifling  offenders  were  lodged  in  the 
southern  prison,  but  those  confined  for  greater  offences 
in  the  northern ;  so  that  those  who  were  about  to  re 
ceive  grace  could  be  placed  in  the  southern  prison,  and 
those  who  were  not,  in  the  northern.  Those  men  and 
women  who  were  imprisoned  for  life  were  allowed  to 

occurrence  in  Chinese  transcriptions)  :  instead  of  the  character  TONG  (4, 
233  Bas.),  we  have  Tang  (11,  444  B.),  which  signifies  copper,  and  according 
to  which  we  must  read,  "  Their  leaves  resemble  copper,"  which  is  evi 
dently  an  error. 

1  This  is  the  case  also  in  China  with  the  bamboo  sprouts,  on  which 
account  they  are  called  sun  (7,  449  B.)  ;  i.e.,  the  buds  of  the  first  ten  days, 
since  they  only  keep  for  that  time. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  2/ 

marry.  The  boys  resulting  from  these  marriages  were, 
at  the  age  of  eight  years,  sold  as  slaves ;  the  girls  not 
until  their  ninth  year.~^If  a  man  of  any  note  was  found 
guilty  of  crimes,  an  assembly  was  held ;  it  must  be  in 
an  excavated  place."  (Grube,  Ger.  "a  pit;"  possibly 
within  an  embankment  or  circle  of  earth. — C.  Gr.  L.) 
"  There  they  strewed  ashes  over  him,  and  bade  him  fare 
well.  If  the  offender  was  one  of  a  lower  class,  he  alone 
was  punished  ;  but  when  of  rank,  the  degradation  was 
extended  to  his  children  and  grandchildren.  With 
those* of  the  highest  rank  it  attained  to  the  seventh 
generation." 

THE  KINGDOM  AND  THE  NOBLES  OF  FUSANG. 

"  The  name  of  the  king  is  pronounced  Ichi.  The 
nobles  of  the  first-class  are  termed  Tuilu ;  of  the  second, 
Little  Tuilu  ;  and  of  the  third,  Na-to-scha,  When  the 
prince  goes  forth,  he  is  accompanied  by  horns  and 
trumpets.  The  colour  of  his  clothes  changes  with  the 
different  years.  In  the  two  first  of  the  ten-year  cyclus 
they  are  blue ;  in  the  two  next,  red ;  in  the  two  follow 
ing,  yellow ;  in  the  two  next,  red ;  and  in  the  last  two, 
black." 

MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS. 

"  The  horns  of  the  oxen  are  so  large  that  they  hold 
ten  bushels.  They  use  them  to  contain  all  manner  of 


28  THE  NARRATIVE  0?  HOE1-SHIN. 

things.  Horses,  oxen,  and  stags  are  harnessed  to  their 
waggons.  Stags  are  used  here  as  cattle  are  used  in  the 
Middle  Kingdom,  and  from  the  milk  of  the  hind  they 
make  butter.  The  red  pears  of  the  Fusang-tree  keep 
good  throughout  the  year.  Moreover,  they  have  apples 
and  reeds.  CjFroni  the  latter  they  prepare  mats.j(L/N"o 
iron  is  found  in  this  land ;  but  copper,  gold,  and  silver 
are  not  prized,  and  do  not  serve  as  a  medium  of  ex 
change  in  the  market. 

"  Marriage  is  determined  upon  in  the  following  man 
ner  : — The  suitor  builds  himself  a  hut  before  the  door 
of  the  house  where  the  one  longed  for  dwells,  and 
waters  and  cleans  the  ground  every  morning  and  even 
ing.  When  a  year  has  passed  by,  if  the  maiden  is  not 
inclined  to  marry  him,  he  departs  ;  should  she  be  willing, 
it  is  completed.  When  the  parents  die,  they  fast  seven 
days.  For  the  death  of  the  paternal  or  maternal  grand 
father  they  lament  five  days ;  at  the  death  of  elder  or 
younger  sisters  or  brothers,  uncles  or  aunts,  three  days. 
They  then  sit  from  morning  to  evening  before  an  image 
of  the  ghost,  absorbed  in  prayer,  but  wear  no  mourning- 
clothes.  When  the  king  dies,  the  son  who  succeeds 
him  does  not  busy  himself  for  three  years  with  State 
affairs. 

"  In  earlier  times  these  people  lived  not  according  to 
the  laws  of  Buddha.  But  it  happened  that  in  the  second 
year-naming  <  Great  Light/  of  Song  (A.D.  458),  five 
beggar-monks  from  the  kingdom  of  Kipin  went  to 


THE  NARRA  TIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  2g 

this  land,  extended  over  it  the  religion  of  Buddha, 
and  with  it  his  holy  writings  and  images.  They  in 
structed  the  people  in  the  principles  of  monastic  life, 
and  so  changed  their  manners." 

AMAZONIA. 

The  same  Buddhist  monk  who  gives  this  account  of 
the  land  Fusang,  tells  us  of  a  country  of  women. 
"  This  land,"  he  writes,  "  lies  about  a  thousand  Chinese 
miles  in  an  easterly  direction  from  Fusang,  and  is  in 
habited  by  white  people  with  very  hairy  bodies."  l  The 
entire  story  is,  however,  intermixed  with  so  much  fabu 
lous  matter,  that  it  is  not  worth  translating.  It  is, 
however,  worthy  of  remark,  that  since  the  earliest  times 
every  civilised  race  which  has  left  us  written  records  of 
its  existence  spoke  of  a  land  of  women,  which  was 
always  placed  farther  and  farther  to  the  north-east, 
until  we  find  it  ultimately  placed  in  ^America.2  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  such  a  land  of  women 
could  never  have  existed.  It  is,  however,  possible  that 
among  various  tribes  here  and  there  the  women  may 
have  had  separate  dwelling-places ;  perhaps  apart  upon 
an  island,  and  held  intercourse  with  the  men  only 
from  time  to  time.  The  Arabs,  particularly  Edrisi,  speak 

1  The  reports  are  given  in  the  Kansse,  bk.  79,  p.  5  ;  Leang-schu,  bk. 
54,  p.  49  ;  and  from  these  much  more  correctly  in  the  Encyclopaedia  of 
Mantuanliu,  bk.  327,  a.  A. 

2  The  Japanese  have  in  their  facelift  an  account  of  such  a  country. — 
C.  G.  L. 


30  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

of  such  an  arrangement,  but  thought  that  this  land  of 
women  lay  in  an  altogether  different  direction.1  The 
knowledge  of  the  Arabs  and  Persians  of  the  east  and 
north-eastern  parts  of  the  world  extended  only  to  Japan 
and  the  eastern  shores  of  China.  "  To  the  eastward 
of  Japan,"  asserts  Abulfeda  distinctly,  "  the  earth  is 
uninhabited." 

1  Edrisi,  ii.  433,  edition  Jaubert. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

REMARKS    ON   THE   REPORT    OF    HOEI-SHIN. 

THE  land  west  of  the  Indus,  known  to  us  at  the  pre 
sent  day  under  the  names  of  Avghanistan  and  Beloo- 
chistan,  was  converted,  shortly  after  the  death  of  the 
Indian  reformer  Buddha,  to  his  doctrine,  which  spread 
the  system  of  castes,  and  was  founded  upon  the  prin 
ciple  of  universal  love. 

It  bears  in  the  reports  of  the  Chinese  Buddhists  the 
name  Kipin,  which  appears  in  the  different  forms  of 
Kaphen,  Kaphes,  and  Kaphante,  in  the  description  of 
rivers  and  cities  in  Gedrosia  and  Arachosia  by  several  of 
the  older  writers.1  Here  the  third  leader  of  the  religion  of 
the  King's  Son  of  Kapilapura  had  chosen  his  seat,2  and 
here  his  disciples  flourished  in  great  power,  as  their  nume 
rous  monuments  and  ruins  indicate,  until  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries,  when  the  fanatic  Moslem  promulgated 
the  doctrines  of  their  own  prophet  with  fire  and  sword. 

1  Mannert  :  Geographie  der  Griechen  und  Romer,  v.,  Abtheilung  ii. 
19,  20,  53,  und  55. 

2  Vide  History  of  Buddhism,  which  bears  the  title  Tschi-jue-la,  i.e.,  the 
Indian  Guide,  iii.  5,  v. 


32  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  H OKI-SPUN. 

To  its  holy  city  came  many  of  the  monks  of  Middle  Asia 
and  China,  and  from  Kophene  again  the  religion  ex 
tended  itself  to  many  parts  of  the  world,  even  to  North 
America  and  Mexico. 

How  these  American  lands  were  named  by  their  in 
habitants  we  know  not,  as  seems  indeed  to  be  generally 
the  case  with  most  new  discoveries  of  this  nature.  We 
know  only  that  they  received  the  name  Fusang,  which 
was  that  of  a  tree  common  to  these  countries  and 
Eastern  Asia,  or,  it  would  more  probably  appear,  that  of 
an  Asiatic  tree  resembling  it  in  one  or  more  particulars  : 
for  it  seems  to  be  a  natural  and  usual  circumstance 
to  name  a  newly-discovered  land  after  some  striking 
peculiarity  of  the  kind.  The  Norsemen,  who  landed  in 
America  five  hundred  years  after  these  Buddhist  priests, 
named  it  in  a  similar  manner  Winaland — Wine  or 
Vine  land— from  the  number  of  wild  grapes  which  grew 
there.  On  account  of  the  great  distance  of  the  land 
Fusang,  no  missionaries  went  there  afterwards.  And 
yet  the  story  of  this  land,  so  full  of  marvels,  has  not 
yet  disappeared  from  the  memories  of  Chinese  and 
Buddhist  inquirers  into  the  wonders  of  the  olden  time. 
^"Many  of  them  have  frequently  mentioned  it  in  their 
\  works,  and  have  even  drawn  maps  of  it,1  and  taken 
the  pains,  in  their  thoughtless,  unreflecting  manner,  to 
'  collect  all  the  accounts  which  we  have  here  given.  Also, 
at  a  later  period,  their  mythical  geographers  and  poets 
often  availed  themselves  of  this  piece  of  knowledge,  and, 

1  Fa-Uai-rirjan-Utu,  i.e.,  More  Certain  Tables  of  Religion,  i.  22. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


33 


as  was  the  case  in  the  West1  with  the  land  of  Prester 
John,  spun  it  out  into  all  manner  of  strange  tales. 
But  these  beautiful  and  romantic  fancies  about  the  land 
and  tree  Fusang  can  have  no  more  weight  with  the 
impartial  seeker  into  the  truth  of  historical  tradition 
than  the  legends  of  Alexander  and  of  Charlemagne 
with  the  student  of  Arrian  and  Eginhard.2 

The  distance  of  the  land  from  Tahan  or  Aliaska, 
which  extends,  according  to  the  estimate  before  given, 
from  the  fifty-seventh  to  the  fifty-eighth  degree,  leads 
us  necessarily  to  the  north-west  coast  of  Mexico,  and 
the  vicinity  of  San  Bias.  Not  less  decisively  do  the 
Buddhist- Chinese  reports  indicate  this  part  of  the 
world.  But  before  we  can  avail  ourselves  of  these  later 
accounts  of  the  Aztecs,  a  difficulty  must  be  removed, 
which  would  otherwise  annihilate  the  complete  mass  of 
proofs. 

THE    OLDEST   HISTORY    OF   MEXICO. 

The  information  given  by  our  Buddhist  travellers 
goes  back  into  times  long  anterior  to  the  most  remote 
periods  alluded  to  in  the  obscure  legends  of  the 

1  Vide  Eelation  des  Mongols  ou  Tartares,  by  the  priest  Jean  du  Plan  de 
Carpin,  Legat  du  Saint  Siege  Apostolique,  &c.,  during  tlie  years  1245-47, 
given  in  the  notice  published  by  the  Socidte  de  Geographic,  under  the 
above-mentioned  title  ;  the  travels  of  Sir  John  Mandeville,  and  Jacques 
de  Vitry  ;  the  works  of  Matthew  of  Paris,  Joinville,  Marco  Polo  ;  and  more 
particularly  the  old  legend  of  Prestre  Jehau,  reprinted  in   "  Le  Monde 
Enchautee,"  parM.  Ferdinand  Denis,  Paris,  1843,  p.  184.— C.  G.  L. 

2  Fi'cZe  •  Turpin's    Chronicle,    Warton ;    "The   Book   of   Legends,"   by 
O'Sullivan,    Paris,     1842;    also    "The    Romance    of    King  Alisauder," 
Weber's  "Metrical  Romances." — C.  G.  L. 


34  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HO  El- SHIN. 

Aztecs,  resting  upon  uncertain  interpretations  of  hiero 
glyphics.  One  fact  is,  however,  deeply  rooted  in  this 
trembling  soil  of  Old  America :  the  races  of  barbarians 
which  successively  followed  each  other  from  the  north 
to  the  south  always  murdered,  hunted  down,  and  sub 
dued  the  previous  inhabitants,  and  formed  in  course 
of  time  a  new  social  and  political  life  upon  the  ruins 
of  the  old  system,  to  be  again  destroyed  and  renewed 
in  a  few  centuries,  by  a  new  invasion  of  barbarians. 
The  later  native  conquerors  in  the  New  World  can, 
of  course,  no  more  be  considered  in  the  light  of  ori 
ginal  inhabitants  than  the  present  races  of  men  in  the 
Old  World. 

THE  RUINS  OF  MITLA  AND  PALENQUE.1 

The  ruins  named  after  the  adjacent  places,  Mitla  and 
Palenque,  situated  in  the  province  Zzendales,  near  the 
limits  of  the  municipality  of  Cuidad  Real  and  Yucatan, 
have  been  supposed  by  enthusiastic  scholars  to  possess 
an  antiquity  anterior,  by  thousands  of  years,  to  the 
coming  of  our  Lord.  Prejudiced  and  ignorant  vision 
aries  have  imagined  this  to  be  the  home  of  all  spiritual 
cultivation,  and  even  to  have  discovered  here  traces  of 
Buddhism.  The  Toltcks — a  word  signifying  architects 

1  Antiquites  Mexicaines,  ii.  73,  and  Transactions  of  the  American  An 
tiquarian  Society,  ii.  On  the  subject  of  the  early  Mexicans,  the  reader 
may  consult  Prescott's  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"— a  work  as 
much  distinguished  by  substantial  erudition  and  critical  tact,  as  by  its 
simple,  truly  historical  statements.  (Ebenso  ausgezeichnet  durch  griiudliche 
Gelehrsamkeit  und  kritischen  Tact,  wie  durch  einfache  iicht  geschichtliche 
Darstellung.)  — CARL  F.  NEUMANN. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


55 


— appeared  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh,  century, 
and  one  of  their  literary  productions,  known  as  "  The 
Divine  Book,"  existed,  according  to  an  unauthenticated 
legend,  until  the  time  of  the  Spaniards.  The  Aztecs, 
on  the  contrary,  came  to  Anahuac,  or  "  The  Land 
near  the  Water,"  during  the  reign  of  Frederick  the 
Second.1  The  savage  invaders  evinced  at  first  the 
greatest  hostility  to  the  religion  and  social  institutions 
of  the  conquered  race,  bu^jeelin£_  ultimately  them 
selves  the  want  of  a  regular  system,  they  erected  a  new 
edifice  upon  the  old  ruins.  This  may  prove  advan 
tageous  in  an  intellectual  or  intelligent  (subjectiv)^  as 
well  as  a  material  point  of  view,  since  we  gan^thus 
avail  ourselves  of  JL  knowledge  of  the  laws^  manners, 
and  customs  of  the  Aztecs,  in  order  to  obtain  a  clearer 
conception  of  the  condition  of  the  earlier  races  who  in 
habited  this  land.2  The  most  learned  historian  of  New 
Spain  has  already  recognised  in  every  particular,  and  in 
connection  with  the  results  of  the  most  recent  inquiries, 
the  original  affinity  of  the  numerous  Mexican  languages. 
The  pyrarnidic-symbolic  form  of  many  of  the  Mexican 
monuments  appears,  indeed,  to  have  a  resemblance  with 
the  religious  edifices  of  the  Buddhists  for  places  of 
interment ;  but  neither  their  architecture  nor  orna 
ments,  according  to  Castaneda's  drawings  of  Mexican 
antiquities,  indicate  any  East  Indian  symbol,  unless  we 

1  The  chronological  accounts  of  the  different   authors  contradict  each 
other ;  those  of   the   learned   Clavigero   always   appear  to  be  the  •  most 
correct. — PRESCOTT,  i.  ii. 

2  Clavigero,  Storia  Antica  del  Messico,  i.  153. 


36  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

are  willing  to  admit  tlieir  eight  rings  or  stories  as 
such.1  According  to  a  Buddhistic  legend,  the  remains 
of  Schakia  were  placed  in  eight  metallic  jars,  and  over 
these  as  many  temples  were  erected.2  But  if  Buddhism 
ever  flourished  in  Central  America,  it  certainly  was  not 
the  pure  religion  of  Schakia  as  it  now  exists  in  Nepaul, 
Thibet,  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  but  a  new  religion, 
built  upon  its  foundations.  For  the  missionaries  of 
Schakiamunis  were  in  a  manner  Jesuits,  who,  the 
more  readily  to  attain  their  aim,  either  based  their 
doctrines  upon,  or  intermixed  them  with,  the  existing 
manners  and  customs.  The  myth  of  the  birth  of  the 
terrible  Aztec  god  of  war  may  possibly  be  a  faded 
remain  of  the  old  Indian  religion.  Huitzilopotschli 
of  Mexico  was  born  in  the  same  wonderful  manner  as 
Schakia  of  India ;  his  mother  saw  a  ball  floating  in  the 
air,  but  one  of  shining  feathers,  placed  it  in  her  bosom, 
became  pregnant,  and  gave  birth  to  the  terrible  son, 
who  came  into  the  world  with  a  spear  in  his  right  hand, 
a  shield  in  his  left,  and  a  waving  tuft  of  green  feathers 
on  his  head.  Juan  de  Grijalva,  the  nephew  of  Velas 
quez,  was  so  much  struck  with  the  many  instances  of 
a  high  state  of  civilisation,  and  particularly  with  the 
magnificent  buildings  of  Mexico,  that  he  named  the 

1  These  circles  suggest  tlie  eight  rings  of  Odin,  preserved  in  the  eight 
arches  of  Norse  towers.     The  ring  of  Odiii  produced  every  eighth  night 
eight  similar  rings.     It  may  be  worth  remarking  in  this  connection,  that 
the  small  pot-bellied  phallic  images  in  gold  found  in  the  graves  of  Central 
America,  bear  an  extraordinary  resemblance  to  a  similar  figure  found  iu 
Ireland,  and  depicted  on  Etruscan  vases. — C.  G.  L. 

2  Asiatic  Researches,  xvi.  316. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  37 

peninsula  New  Spain,  which  term  has  since   been  ex 
tended  to  a  much  greater  portion  of  the  New  World. 

FUSANG,  MAGUEY,  AGAVE  AMERICANA. 

We  know  that  the  flora  of  the  north-western  part  of 
America  is  closely  allied  to  that  of  China,  Japan,,  and 
other  lands  of  Eastern  Asia.1  We  may  also  assume  that 
the  Fusang-tree  was  formerly  found  in  America,  and 
afterwards,  through  neglect,  became  extinct.  Tobacco 
and  Indian-corn  seem  always  to  have  been  as  natural 
to  China  as  to  the  New  World.2  It  is,  however,  much 
more  probable  that  the  traveller  described  a  plant 
hitherto  unknown  to  him,  which  supplies  as  many 
wants  in  Mexico  as  the  original  Fusang  is  said  to  do 
in  Eastern  Asia — I  mean  the  great  American  aloe 
(Agave  America.no),  called  by  the  Indians  "  Maguey," 
which  is  so  remarkably  abundant  in  the  plains  of  New 
Spain.  /From  the  crushed  leaves,  even  at  the  present 
day,  a  firm  paper  is  prepared.  Upon  such  paper  those 
hieroglyphic  manuscripts  alluded  to  by  the  Buddhist 
missionary,  and  destroyed  by  the  fanatic  Spaniards, 
were  written.  From  the  sap  an  intoxicating  drink  is 
made.  Its  large  stiff  leaves  serve  to  roof  their  low 
huts,  and  the  fibres  supply  them  with  a  variety  of 
thread  and  ropes.  From  the  boiled  roots  they  prepare 
an  agreeable  food,  and  the  thorns  serve  for  pins  and 

1  Prescott,  i.  143. 

2  A  very  doubtful  assertion,  as  regards  tobacco.      Vide  communications 
in  "Notes  and  Queries  for  China." — C.  G.  L. 


38  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

needles.  This  wonderful  plant,  therefore,  provides  them 
with  food,  drink,  clothing,  and  writing  materials  ;  being, 
in  fact,  so  fully  satisfactory  to  every  want  of  the  Mexi 
cans,  that  many  persons,  well  acquainted  with  the  land 
and  its  inhabitants,  have  asserted  that  the  maguey-plant 
must/ "be  exterminated  ,  ere  sloth  and  idleness,  the  two 
gre&t  impediments  which  hinder  them  from  attaining  a 
higher  social  position,  can  be  checked.- 

METALS  AND  MONEY. 

The  use  of  iron,  now  found  so  plentifully  in  New 
Spain,  was,  as  the  Buddhist  correctly  remarked,  un 
known  in  Mexico.  Copper  and  brass  supplied  its  place, 
as  was  indeed  the  case  at  an  early  period  in  other 
countries.  The  natives  prepared,  according  to  An 
tonio  de  Herrera,  two  sorts  of  copper,  a  hard  and  a  soft, 
the  former  of  which  was  used  to  manufacture  cutting 
tools  and  agricultural  instruments,  and  the  latter  for 
pots  and  all  manner  of  household  implements.  They 
understood  the  working  of  silver,  tin,  and  lead  mines ; 
but  neither  the  silver  nor  the  gold  which  they  picked 
up  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  found  in  the  beds  of 
rivers,  served  as  a  circulating  medium.  These  metals 
were  not  particularly  prized  in  that  land.  Pieces  of 
tin  in  the  form  of  a  common  hammer,1  and  bundles  of 

1  Do  not  these  hammer-shaped  Mexican  coins  bear  a  resemblance  to 
the  well-known  shoe-shaped  ingots  of  Sycee  silver  current  in  China  ?  As 
regards  the  copper,  recent  discoveries  indicate  that  it  was  brought  by  the 
Mexicans  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  The  highest  northern  traces  of 
Mexican  art  and  influence  are,  I  believe,  to  be  found  in  Tennessee. — C.  G»  L. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


39 


cacao  containing  a  determined  number  of  seeds,   were 
the  usual  money. 

LAWS  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  AZTECS. 

The  laws  of  the  Aztecs  were  very  strict,  yet  in 
the  few  remaining  fragments  of  their  hieroglyphical 
pictures  we  find  no  trace  of  the  regulations  of  the 
land  "  Fusang."  There  existed,  however,  in  the  days 
of  Montezuma,  an  hereditary  nobility,  divided  into 
several  ranks,  of  which  authors  give  contradictory 
statements.  Zurita  speaks  of  four  orders  of  chiefs,  who 
were  exempted  from  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  enjoyed 
other  immunities.1 

Their  method  of  marrying  resembled  that  practised 
at  the  present  day  in  Kamtschatka.  We  have  no 
account  of  their  mourning  ceremonies,  but  know  that 
the  king  had  a  particular  palace  in  which  he  passed 
the  time  of  mourning  for  his  nearest  relatives.2  On 
the  festivals  of  the  gods  they  sounded  horns  and  trum 
pets  ;  this  may  have  been  done  by  the  companions  of 
the  king,  as  to  a  representative  of  the  godhead.3 

The  Aztecs  reckoned  according  to  a  period  of  fifty- 
two  years,  and  knew  very  exactly  the  time  of  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  about  the  sun.  The  ten-year 
cyclus  spoken  of  in  the  Chinese  report  may  have  been 
a  subdivision  of  the  Aztec  period,  or  have  even  been 

1  Prescott,  i.  18.  ~  Mithridates,  iii.  33. 

3  Berual  Diaz  :  Historia  de  la  Conquista,  pp.  152,  153.    Prescott,  iii.  87,  97. 


40  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

used  as  an  independent  period,  as  was  the  case 
with  the  Chinese,  who  term  their  notations  "  stems." 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  among  the  Mongols  and 
Mantchons  these  "  stems "  are  named  after  colours, 
which  perhaps  have  some  relation  to  the  several  colours 
of  the  royal  clothing  in  the  cyclus  of  Fusang.1  These 
Tartaric  tribes  term  the  first  two  years  of  the  ten-year 
cyclus  "  green  and  greenish;"  the  two  next  "  red 
and  reddish,"  !  and  so,  in  continuation,  yellow  and 
yellowish,  white  and  whitish,  and  finally  black  and 
blackish.  It  appears,  however,  impossible  to  bring 
this  cyclus  of  the  Aztecs  into  any  relation  with  those  of 
the  Asiatics,  who  universally  reckon  by  periods  of  sixty 
years. 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Aztecs  had  no  beasts  of  draught  or  of  burden. 
Horses  were  not  found  in  the  New  World.  The  report 
of  the  Chinese  missionary  has,  therefore,  no  connection 
with  the  later  Mexican  reigns.  Two  varieties  of  wild 
oxen  with  large  horns  ranged  in  herds  on  the  plains  of 
the  Kio  del  Norte.3  These  might  have  been  tamed  by 
the  earlier  inhabitants,  and  used  as  domestic  animals. 
Stag's  horns  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Mexican 
buildings  ;  and  Montezuma  showed  the  Spaniards,  as 
curiosities,  immensely  large  horns  of  this  description. 

1  Gaubil  :  Observations  Mathe"matiques,  Paris,  1732,  ii.  135. 

2  The  second  couple  being  termed  red  agrees  with  that  of  the  Fusang 
cyclus.— C.  G.  L. 

1  Humboldt  :  Neuhispanien,  ii.  138. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  41 

It  is  possible  that  the  stags  formerly  ranged  from  New 
California,  and  other  regions  of  North  America,  where 
they  are  still  found  in  great  numbers,  to  the  interior  of 
Mexico.  To  a  native  of  China  it  must  have  seemed 
remarkable  that  the  Mexicans  should  have  prepared 
butter  from,  hind's  milk,  since  such  a  thing  has  seldom 
been  done  in  China,  either  in  ancient  or  modern  times. 
When  the  inhabitants  of  Chusan  saw  the  English 
sailors  milking  she-goats,  they  could  not  retain  their 
gravity.  It  is  indeed  possible  that  the  Chinese  have 
described  an  animal  similar  to  the  horse  with  the 
character  Ma,  or  horse,  for  changes  of  this  nature  are 
of  frequent  occurrence.1  In  such  a  manner  many 
names  of  animals  in  the  Old  World  have  been  applied 
to  others  of  an  entirely  different  nature  in  the  New. 
The  eastern  limits  of  the  Asiatic  Continent  are  also  the 
limits  of  the  native  land  of  the  horse,  and  it  appears 
that  it  was  first  taken  in  the  third  century  of  our 
era  from  Korea  into  Japan.  But  let  the  error  in  regard 
to  the  American  horses  have  come  from  what  source  it 
will,  the  unprejudiced,  circumspect  inquirer  will  not  be 

1  It  is  usual  for  all  ignorant  or  unscientific  people  to  give  to  animals 
for  which  they  have  no  name  that  of  some  other  creature  with  which 
they  are  familiar.  Thus  the  gipsies  speak  of  a  fox  as  a  iceshni  juckal, 
or  wood-dog;  of  an  elephant  as  a  ~boro  nalkescro  yry,  or  great-nosed 
horse  ;  of  a  monkey  as  a  bombaros,  and  a  lion  as  a  boro  bombaros,  or 
big  monkey,  from  their  connection  in  menageries.  Professor  Neumann 
was  probably  ignorant  of  the  fact,  to  which  I  allude  more  fully  in  another 
place,  that  the  fossil  remains  of  many  horses  found  in  America  are  of  so 
recent  a  period,  according  to  Professor  Leidy,  that  they  were  probably 
coeval  with  man. — C.  G.  L. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOE  I- SHIN. 


determined  on  account  of  it  to  declare  the  entire  story 
of  Fusaug-Mexico  an  idle  tale.  It  appears  to  me  that 
this  description  of  the  western  coast  of  America  is  at 
least  as  authentic  as  the  discovery  of  the  eastern  coast, 
as  narrated  in  Icelandic  sagas. 


CHAPTER   V. 

CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE  IN  KAMTSCHATKA  AND  THE 
HAWAIIAN  GROUP. 

A  NUMBER  of  facts,  taken  from  the  occurrences  of  later 
times,  may  be  alleged  to  support  the  theory  of  a  former 
intercourse  of  China  and  Japan  with  the  islands  which 
lie  between  those  countries  and  America,  and  also  with 
the  western  coast  of  the  latter.  Even  if  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese  (to  whom,  with  their  knowledge  of  the 
compass,  such  an  enterprise  would  have  presented  no 
difficulties)  have  never  at  any  time  intentionally  under 
taken  a  voyage  to  America,  it  has  nevertheless  hap 
pened  that  ships  from  Eastern  Asia,  China,  and  Japan, 
as  well  as  those  of  Russians  from  Ochotsk  and  Karn- 
tschatka,  have  been  cast  away  on  the  islands  and  coasts 
of  the  New  World.1  The  earliest  Spanish  travellers  and 
discoverers  heard  of  foreign  merchants  who  had  landed 
on  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  and  even  assert 
that  they  saw  fragments  of  a  Chinese  vessel.2  This 
much  we  know,  that  the  crew  of  a  Japanese  junk  acci- 

1  An  account  of  a  Russian  ship  cast  away,  A.D.  1761,  on  the  coast  of 
California,  may  be  found  in  the  travels  of  several  Jesuit  missionaries  iu 
America,  published  by  Murr,  Nuremberg,  1785,  p.  337. 

2  Torquemada,  Mou.  Ind.,  iii.  7  ;  Acosta,  Hist.  Nat.  Amer.,  iii.  12. 


44  THE  NARRA  TIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 

dentally  discovered  a  great  continent  in  the  East,  re 
mained  there  over  winter,  and  safely  returned  home. 
The  Japanese  have  remarked  that  the  land  extended 
further  to  the  north-west,1  They  may  have  wintered 
in  California,  and  then  coasted  as  far  north  as  Aliaska. 
Another  Japanese  vessel  was  wrecked  about  the  end  of 
the  year  1832  on  Oahu,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
concerning  which  the  Hawaiian  Spectator  contained  the 
following  observation  :2 — "  This  Japanese  vessel  had 
nine  men  on  board,  who  were  bringing  fish  from  one 
of  the  southern  Chinese  islands  to  Jeddo.  A  storm 
blew  them  out  into  the  open  sea,  where  they  were 
driven  about  between  ten  and  eleven  months,  until  they 
finally  landed  in  the  haven  Waiala,  in  the  island  Oahn, 
The  ship  was  wrecked,  but  the  men  were  brought  safely 
to  Honolulu,  where  they  remained  eighteen  months, 
and  then,  by  their  own  desire,  were  sent  to  Kam- 
tschatka,  whence  they  hoped  to  steal  quietly  into  their 
own  country;  for  the  barbarously  cruel. Government  of 
Japan,3  mindful  of  the  artifices  of  the  Portuguese 

1  Kampfer  :  Geschichte  von  Japan,  Lemgo,  17/7,  i.  82. 

2  Hawaiian  Spectator,  i.  296,  quoted  in  Belcher's  "Voyage  Round  tLo 
World,"  London,  1843,  i.  304.     Also  see   "History  of  the   Hawaiian  or 
Sandwich   Islands,    from  the  earliest  traditionary  period  to  the  present 
time,"  by  James  Jackson  Jarvis,  London,  1843.     I  have  been  personally 
well  acquainted  with  both  these  writers,  and  can  commend  their  works  u3 
those  of   men  of  accurate  observation.     Jarvis  states  that,  according  to 
the   tradition   of    the  islanders,    several  such  vessels  had  been  wrecked 
upon   Hawaii  before  the  island  was  discovered  by  whites  or  Europeans. 
— C.  G.  L. 

3  The  reader  will  please  to  remember  that  all  this  was  written  thirty 
years  ago,  before  Japan  had  entered  on  the  great  race  of  civilisation. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  45 

Jesuits,  and  continually  fearing  some  plot  on  the  part 
of  the  neighbouring  Russians,  have  forbidden  even 
the  return  of  their  own  shipwrecked  countrymen.  As 
the  natives  of  Hawaii,"  so  continues  the  Spectator , 
"  saw  these  foreigners,  so  similar  to  themselves  in 
external  appearance,  and  in  many  manners  and  cus 
toms,  they  were  astonished,  and  declared  unanimously, 
6  There  is  no  doubt  on  the  subject ;  we  came  from  Asia.'" 
Another  example  of  a  Japanese  vessel  in  America,  and 
of  the  unreflecting,  jealous  policy  of  the  Dairi,  is  as 
follows  : — During  the  winter  of  1833-34,  a  Japanese 
junk  was  wrecked  on  the  north-west  coast  of  America, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  and  the 
numerous  crew,  weakened  by  hunger,  were  murdered 
by  the  natives,  with  the  exception  of  two  persons.  The 
Hudson  Bay  Company  kindly  took  charge  of  these 
survivors,  and  sent  them,  in  1834,  to  England,  whence 
they  were  forwarded  to  Macao.  This  was  considered  a 
fortunate  event,  and  the  English  hoped  that  the  Japan 
ese  Government,  mindful  of  such  kind  treatment  of  their 
subjects,  would  show  themselves  grateful,  and  perhaps 
remove  the  restrictions  against  all  foreigners.  In  vain. 
The  ship  that  was  to  restore  to  the  Japanese  rulers  their 
subjects,  and  at  the  same  time  aid  in  the  missionary 
enterprise  (Karl  Giitzlaff  being  on  board),  was  received 
with  a  salute  of  cannon-balls,  and  obliged  to  leave,  with 
unfulfilled  intentions,  the  shores  of  this  inhospitable 
land. 

All  of  these  facts  show,  however,  and  indeed   suffi- 


46  THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOET-SHIN. 

ciently,  that  the  passage  of  Eastern  Asiatics  to  the 
western  islands  and  shores  of  America  is  in  the  highest 
degree  possible.  And  it  is  also  possible  that  the  inha 
bitants  of  these  islands,  in  their  weak  boats,  may  from 
time  to  time,  accidentally  or  intentionally,  have  landed 
upon  the  Asiatic  Continent.  "  It  is  wonderful,"  says 
the  Jesuit  Hieronymus  d'Angelis,  the  first  European 
who  landed  in  Jeso  (A.D.  1G1S),  "how  bold  and  expe 
rienced  are  these  people  in  the  management  of  then 
vessels.  In  their  frail  boats  they  often  undertake 
voyages  of  from  two  to  three  months'  duration  ;  anc. 
however  often  they  may  be  wrecked,  still  there  are  ever 
new  adventurers  ready  to  take  their  place  and  run  the 
same  risks.*' 

THE  FUTURE  OF  EASTERN  ASIA. 

The  pride  and  barbarism  of  the  numerous  countries 
situated  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  America,  as  well  as 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  lying  between,  have 
forbidden  hitherto  any  hope  of  a  relation,  commercial 
or  otherwise,  between  them  and  the  more  enlightened 
world.  Our  age,  however,  which  has  broken  through 
so  many  obstacles,  never  again  to  be  closed,  will  ulti 
mately  break  the  chains  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  give  a 
world-movement  (Weltbercegung)  to  the  immense  num 
bers  imprisoned  there.  When  this-  shall  have  been  fully 
accomplished — and  the  beginning  has  already  taken 
place — we  can  first  hope  for  a  regular,  unbroken  union 
between  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  World. 


REMARKS 


OX  THE 


TEXT  OF  PROFESSOR  NEUMANN, 


CHAPTER    VI. 

FUSANG  AND  PERU. 

SINCE  the  foregoing  chapters  were  written,  the  author — 
my  old  friend  and  teacher — has  passed  away,  and  the 
prophecy  with  which  his  work  ended  has  been  sin 
gularly  fulfilled.  China  is  now  thoroughly  opened, 
and  Japan,  once  proverbial  for  its  exclusiveness,  goes 
beyond  more  than  one  European  country  in  her  zeal 
to  Europeanise.  And  I  believe  that  time  will  show, 
when  the  records  of  these  countries  shall  have  been 
more  carefully  searched,  that  the  same  insight  which 
induced  Carl  F.  Neumann  to  prophecy  the  speedy  open 
ing  of  the  East,  was  not  at  fault  when  he  declared,  on 
apparently  slight  data,  his  faith  that  in  an  early  age  the 
Chinese  had  penetrated  Western  America  as  far  as  Mexico. 
It  should  be  especially  observed  that,  in  commenting 
on  the  simple  record  of  the  old  monk  Hoei-Shiu,  Pro 
fessor  Neumann  judiciously  reminds  the  reader  that  the 
information  given  "  goes  back  into  a  period  long  ante 
rior  to  the  most  remote  ages  alluded  to  in  the  obscure 
legends  of  the  Aztecs,  resting  upon  uncertain  interpre 
tations  of  hieroglyphics."  One  thing  we  know,  that  in 
America,  as  in  Asia  or  Europe,  one  wave  of  emigration 

D 


So       REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN. 


and  conquest  swept  after  another,  each  destroying  in  a 
great  measure  all  traces  of  its  predecessor.  Thus  in 
Peru  the  Inca  race  ruled  over  the  lower  caste,  and 
would  in  time  have  probably  extinguished  it.  But  the 
Incas  themselves  were  preceded  by  another  and  evidently 
more  Drifted  race,  since  it  is  now  known  that  these 

O  / 

mysterious  predecessors  were  far  abler  than  themselves 
as  architects.  "  Who  this  race  were,"  says  Prescott,1 
"and  whence  they  came,  may  afford  a  tempting  theme  for 
inquiry  to  the  speculative  antiquarian.  But  it  is  a  land 
of  darkness,  that  lies  far  beyond  the  domain  of  history.'' 
Problems  as  difficult,  and  far  more  unpromising,  have, 
however,  been  solved  within  a  few  years,  and  entire 
literatures,  histories,  and  languages  have  been  exhumed, 
literally  from  the  soil.  Let  me  instance,  for  example,  the 
earthen  cylinders  of  Nineveh,  of  whose  records  it  may 
not  only  be  said,  "  Dust  thou  art,  and  to  dust  slialt 
thou  return,"  but  also,  in  the  higher  spirit  of  Chris 
tianity  and  humanity,  "  and  from  dust  thou  shalt  rise 
again."  Nullce  latent ;,  qua  non  patent.  And  there  is  a 
possibility  that  even  in  this  secret  of  secrets,  Old  Pern, 
there  lurks  some  slight  possibility  of  elucidating  the 
question  of  the  Chinese  in  Mexico  in  the  fifth  century. 
For  as  the  American  waves  of  conquest  flowed  south,  it 
is  no  extravagant  hypothesis  to  assume  that  the  race 
of  men  whom  the  monk  encountered  in  "  Fusang  "  may 
possibly  have  had  something  in  common  with  what  was 

1  Conquest  of  Peru,  chap.  I.,  i.  12,  13,  edit.   1847.      Vide  note  on  page 
60  of  this  work. 


REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN.       51 

afterwards  found  farther  south  in  the  land  of  the  Incas. 
One  thing  is  certain,  that  there  is  a  singularly  Peruvian 
air  in  all  that  this  short  narrative  tells  us  of  the  land 
Fusang.  Fortified  places,  it  says,  were  unknown, 
though  there  was  evidently  a  high  state  of  civilisa 
tion  ;  and  yet  this  strange  anomaly  appears  to  have 
actually  existed  in  ancient  Peru,  for  Prescott  speaks 
of  the  system  of  fortifications  established  through 
the  empire  as  though  it  had  originated  with  the  Incas. 
Most  extraordinary  is,  however,  the  remark  of  the 
monk  that  the  houses  are  built  with  wooden  beams. 
Now,  as  houses,  all  the  world  over,  are  generally  con 
structed  in  this  manner,  the  remark  might  seem  almost 
superfluous.  However,  the  Peruvians  built  their  houses 
with  wooden  beams,  and,  as  Prescott  tells  us,  "knew  no 
better  way  of  holding  the  beams  together  than  tying 
them  with  the  thongs  of  maguey"  -Xffow,  be  it  re 
marked  that  the  monk  makes  a  direct  transition  from 
speaking  of  the  textile  fibre  and  fabric  of  th.3  maguey 
to  the  wooden  beams  of  the  houses — a  coincidence 
which  is  at  least  striking,  though  it  be  no  proof.  It  is 
precisely  as  though  he  had  the  maguey  in  his  memory, 
and  were  about  to  add  it  to  his  mention  of  the  wooden  • 
beams.  ,And  we  may  notice  that  this  construction  of 
houses^was  admirably  adapted  to  a  land  of  earthquakes 
such  as  Southern  America,  and  that  Prescott  himself 
testifies  that  a  number  of  them  "  still  survive,  while 
the  more  modern  constructions  of  the  conquerors  are 
buried  in  ruins." 


52       REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN. 

Most  strikingly  Peruvian  is  the  monk's  account  of 
the  kingdom  and  the  nobles.  The  name  Ichi  is  very 
like  the  natural  Chinese  pronunciation  of  the  word  Inca. 
The  stress  laid  on  the  three  ranks  of  nobles  suggests 
the  Peruvian  Inca  castes  of  lower  grade,  as  well  as  the 
Mexican  ;  while  the  stately  going  forth  of  the  king, 
"  accompanied  by  horns  and  trumpets,"  vividly  recalls 
Prescott's  account  of  the  journeyings  of  the  Peruvian 
potentate.  The  change  of  the  colour  of  his  garments 
according  to  the  astronomical  cycle  is,  however,  more 
thoroughly  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  institu 
tions  of  the  Children  of  the  Sun  than  anything  which  we 
have  met  in  the  whole  of  this  strange  and  obsolete  record. 
And  it  is  indeed  remarkable  that  Professor  Neumann, 
who  had  already  indicated  the  southern  course  of  Aztec 
or  of  Mexican  civilisation,  and  who  manifested,  as  the 
reader  may  have  observed,  so  much  shrewdness  in  ad 
ducing  testimony  for  the  old  monk's  narrative,  did  not 
search  more  closely  into  Peruvian  history  for  that  con 
firmation  which  a  slight  inquiry  seems  to  indicate  is  by 
no  means  wanting  in  it.  Thus,  with  regard  to  the 
observation  of  the  seasons,  Prescott  tells  us  that  "  the 
ritual  of  the  Incas  involved  a  routine  of  observances 
as  complex  and  elaborate  as  ever  distinguished  that  of 
any  nation,  whether  pagan  or  Christian."  Each  month 
had  its  appropriate  festival,  or  rather  festivals.  The 
four  principal  had  reference  to  the  sun,  and  comme 
morated  the  great  periods  of  his  annual  progress,  the 
solstices  and  equinoxes.  Garments  of  a  peculiar  wool, 


REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN.       53 

and  feathers  of  a  peculiar  colour,  were  reserved  to 
the  Inca.  I  cannot  identify  the  blue,  red,  yellow, 
and  black  (curiously  reminding  one  of  the  alchemical 
elementary  colours  still  preserved  by  a  strange  feeling 
for  antiquity  or  custom  in  chemists'  windows),  but  it  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  the  rainbow  was  the  Inca's 
special  attribute  or  scutcheon,  and  that  his  whole  life 
was  passed  in  accordance  with  the  requisitions  of  astro 
nomical  festivals  ;  and  the  fact  that  different  colours 
were  reserved  to  him,  and  identified  with  him,  is  very 
curious,  and  establishes  a  strange  analogy  with  the 
narrative  of  Hoei-shin. 

I  would,  however,  specially  observe  on  this  subject 
of  the  cycles  and  changes  of  colours  corresponding  to 
astronomical  mutations,  that  Montesinos1  expressly  as 
serts  that  the  Peruvians  threw  their  years  into  cycles 
of  ten — a  fact  which  has  quite  escaped  the  notice  of 
Neumann,  who  conjectures  that  the  decade  of  Fusang 
may  have  been  a  subdivision  of  the  Aztec  period,  or 
even  have  been  used  as  an  independent  one,  as  was 
indeed  the  case  with  the  Chinese,  who  termed  these 
notations  "  stems."  "  It  is  worthy  of  remark,"  he  adds, 
"  that  among  the  Mongols  and  Mantchous  these  6  stems  ' 
are  named  after  colours,  which,  perhaps,  have  some 
relation  to  the  several  colours  of  the  royal  clothing  in 
the  cycles  of  Fusang.  These  Tartaric  tribes  term  the 
first  two  years  of  the  ten-year  cyclus,  green  and  greenish, 

1  Montesinos  :  Hemorias  Antiquas,  MS.,  lib.  ii.  cap.  7.     Vide  Prescott's 
Conquest  of  Peru,  bk.  i.  p.  128. 


54       REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF,  NEUMANN. 

the  next  red  and  reddish,  and  so  on,  yellow  and  yellowish, 
white  and  whitish,  and  finally  black  and  blackish."- 

Peru,  certainly,  is  not  Mexico  ;  but  I  would  here  recall 
my  former  observation  that  Mexico  might  have  been  at 
one  time  peopled  by  a  race  having  Peruvian  customs, 
which  in  after  years  were  borne  by  them  far  to  the 
south.  The  ancient  mythology  and  ethnography  of 
Mexico  present  in  their  turn  a  mass  of  curious,  though 
perhaps  accidental,  identities  with  those  of  Asia.  And 
both  Mexico  and  Peru  had  the  tradition  of  a  deluge 
from  which  seven  prisoners  escaped.  In  the  hieroglyphs 
of  the  former  country,  these  seven  are  represented  -as 
issuing  from  an  egg. 

O  GO 

"We  may  note  also  that  a  Peruvian  tradition  declares 
the  first  missionaries  of  civilisation  who  visited  them 
to  have  been  white  and  bearded.  "  This  may  re 
mind  us,"  says  Prescott,  "  of  the  tradition  existing 
among  the  Aztecs  in  respect  to  Quetzalcoatl,  the  good 
deity,  who,  with  a  similar  garb  and  aspect,  came  up  the 
great  plateau  from  the  east,  on  a  like  benevolent  mission 

1  Mr  Hyde  Clarke  Las  pointed  out,  in  some  remarks  to  which  I  shall 
again  have  occasion  to  refer,  that  there  are  many  curious  circumstances  as 
to  the  use  of  colours  in  connection  with  numbers  ;  and  that,  for  instance 
in  many  of  the  prehistoric  languages,  the  word  for  red  and  that  for  the 
number  two  were  identical.  Very  little  can  be  inferred  from  this,  and 
nothing  can  be  based  upon  it,  but  the  coincidence,  though  slight,  is  curious, 
and  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  future  observation.  Red,  it  may  be  remarked, 
is  the  second  colour  in  the  Fusang  cyclus  as  mentioned  by  Hoei-shin.  In 
the  symbolism  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  blue  and  white  are  identi 
fied  in  the  Pope,  but  the  Cardinals  next  him,  or  the  second  rank,  wear 
red.  Red,  as  I  have  already  indicated,  was  the  colour  both  of  the  second 
Tartar  and  second  Fusang  couple  of  years  in  the  cyclus. 


REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN.       55 

to  the  natives."  In  the  same  way  the  Aesir,  Children 
of  Light,  or  of  the  Sun,  came  from  the  east  to  Scandi 
navia,  and  taught  the  lore  of  the  gods. 

The  Peruvian  embalming  of  the  royal  dead  takes  us 
back  to  Egypt ;  the  burning  of  the  wives  of  the  deceased 
Incas  reveals  India ;  the  singularly  patriarchal  charac 
ter  of  the  whole  Peruvian  policy  is  like  that  of  China 
in  the  olden  time ;  while  the  system  of  espionage,  of 
tranquillity,  of  physical  well-being,  and  the  iron-like 
immovability  in  which  their  whole  social  frame  was 
cast  bring  before  us  Japan — as  it  was  a  very  few  years 
ago.  In  fact,  there  is  something  strangely  Japanese  iu 
the  entire  cultus  of  Peru  as  described  by  all  writers. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Supreme  Being  of  the 
Peruvians  was  worshipped  under  the  names  of  Pacha- 
comae,  "  He  who  sustains  or  gives  life  to  the  universe," 
and  of  Viraeocha,1  "  Foam  of  the  Sea,"  a  name  strik 
ingly  recalling  Venus  Aphrodite,  the  female  and 
second  principle  of  life  in  many  ancient  mythologies. 
Not  less  curious  (if  authentic)  is  the  tradition  of 
the  Vestal  Virgins  of  the  Sun,  who,  it  is  said,  were 
buried  alive  if  detected  in  an  intrigue,  and  whose  duty 
it  was  to  keep  burning  the  sacred  fire  obtained  at  the 
festival  of  Kaynri. 

"  Vigilemque  sacraverat  ignem 
Excubias  divuin  seternas." 

This  fire  was  obtained,  as  by  the  ancient  Romans,  on 

i  To-day  in  Peru  -white  men  are  called  Viracochas.  "Myths  of  the 
New  World,"  by  D.  G.  Brinton,  M.D.,  New  York,  1868,  p.  ISO. 


56       REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN. 

a  precisely  similar  occasion,  by  means  of  a  concave 
mirror  of  polished  metal.1  The  Incas,  in  order  to  pre 
serve  purity  of  race,  married  their  own  sisters,  as 
did  the  kings  of  Persia,  and  of  other  Oriental  nations, 
urged  by  a  like  feeling  of  pride,  and  possibly  in  accor 
dance  with  a  faith  in  the  physical  law  set  forth  a 
few  years  ago  in  the  Fortnightly  and  the  Westminster 
Reviews.  Among  the  Peruvians,  mama  signified  mother, 
while  papa  was  applied  to  the  chief  priest.  "  With 
both,  the  term  seems  to  embrace  in  its  most  comprehen 
sive  sense  the  paternal  relation,  in  which  it  is  more 
familiarly  employed  by  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe." 

It  has  been  observed  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Green  Corn  Festival  ^f  the  Creek  Indians  of  Georgia,2 
many  striking  analogies  can  be  established  between  the 
Indian  tribes  of  North  America  and  the  Peruvians. 
Gallatin  has  shown  the  affinity  of  languages  between 
all  the  American  aborigines.  It  is  possible  that  the  first 
race  which  subsequently  spread  southward,  may  with 
modifications  have  occupied  the  entire  north. 

Let  the  reader  also  remember,  that  while  the  proofs 
of  the  existence  or  residence  of  Orientals  in  America 
are  extremely  vague  and  uncertain— and  I  trust  that  it 

1  The    Liang-sze-kung-ki   says    that    envoys    from    Fusang    to   China 
brought,  as  tribute,  square  and  circular  mirrors  more  than  a  foot  in  cir 
cumference.      These  were  called  "gems  for  observing  the  sun  "—possibly 
metallic  burning-glasses.     Vide  "  Notes  and  Queries  for  China  and  Japan  " 
1870. 

2  Vide   "  The  Green  Corn  Dance,"  from  an  unpublished  MS.  by  John 
Howard  Payne,  author   of    "Home,   Sweet  Home,"  in  the  Continental 
Monthly.     Boston,  1862. 


REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN.       57 

will  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  admission  has  been 
made  sincerely  and  cheerfully — and  while  they  are  sup 
ported  only  by  coincidences,  the  antecedent  probability 
of  their  having  come  hither,  or  having  been  able  to 
come,  is  stronger  than  the  Norse  discovery  of  the  New 
World,  or  even  than  that  of  Columbus  himself  would 
appear  to  be.  Let  the  reader  take  the  map  of  the 
Northern  Pacific ;  let  him  ascertain  for  himself  the  fact 
that  from  Kamtschatka,  which  was  well  known  to  the 
old  Chinese,  to  Aliaska,  the  journey  is  far  less  arduous 
than  from  China  proper,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
was  in  all  probability  abundant  intercourse  of  some 
kind  between  the  continents.  In  early  times,  the 
Chinese  were  bold  and  skilful  navigators,  to  whom  the 
chain  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  would  have  been  simply 
like  steppiog-stones  over  a  shallow  brook  to  a  child. 
For  it  is  a  well-ascertained  fact,  that  a  sailor  in  an 
open  boat  might  cross  from  Asia  to  America  by  the 
Aleutian  Islands  in  summer-time,  and  hardly  ever  be 
out  of  sight  of  land,  and  this  in  a  part  of  the  sea  gene 
rally  abounding  in  fish,  as  is  proved  by  the  fishermen 
who  inhabit  many  of  these  islands,  on  which  fresh  water 
is  always  to  be  found.  Nor  when  in  Aliaska  would  the 
emigrant  from  Asia  be  deterred,  during  half  the  year  at 
least,  by  the  severity  of  the  climate.  If  the  country  be 
not,  as  the  late  Mr  Seward  was  jocosely  said  to  have 
declared,  abounding  in  pine-apples  and  polar  bears, 
icebergs  and  strawberries,  it  is  at  least  tolerably  habit 
able,  as  I  know  by  the  testimony  of  several  friends — 


58       REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN. 

one  of  whom  even  wintered  out  there  while  searching 
for  gold  —  and  from  a  Russian  -  English  newspaper 
published  in  that  remote  country.  From  a  number  of 
this  newspaper,  containing  the  advertisement  of  books 
published  by  Nicholas  Triibner  of  London,  I  infer  that 
a  very  fair  degree  of  luxury,  not  devoid  of  erudition, 
may  now  be  attained  in  Aliaska.  In  short,  to  an  enter 
prising  Buddhist  monk,  inspired  with  the  zeal  of  a 
missionary,  this*  journey  to  Fusang  does  not  present 
one  half  the  difficulties  which  thousands  of  exactly  such 
monks  undergo  at  the  present  day  in  their  journeyings 
over  the  vast  and  sterile  plains  and  through  the  hostile 
mountain  ranges  of  Central  Asia.  I  have,  indeed,  no 
doubt  that,  even  as  I  write,  there  is  living,  travelling, 
and  preaching,  more  than  one  such  Eastern  Cordelier, 
bearing  literally  the  very  name  of  Hoei-shin,  whose 
journeyings  have  been  as  wide,  as  wild,  and  as  weary 
as  those  of  him  who  long  ago  returned  and  told,  like 
King  Thibault  of  Navarre,  his  story  of  lauds  beyond 

sea — 

"  Outre  mer  j'ay  fait  mon  pelerinage, 
Et  sonlTert  ay  moult  grande  dommage," 

— and  so  passed  away  to  a  quiet  cloister  grave.  The 
bedesman  sleeps  among  his  ashes  cold,  little  think 
ing,  before  he  died,  that  more  than  a  thousand  years 
after  his  story  had  been  told  it  would  rise  again 
thousands  of  miles  away,  and  go,  for  men  to  read,  even 
in  Tahan  itself. 

Seriously  enough,  the  only  real  marvel  as  regards  the 


REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMAXX.       59 

probability  of  the  Chinese  having  been  in  Mexico 
thirteen  hundred  years  ago  would  be  that  they  were 
never  there,  and  did  not  make  the  journey.  When  we 
see  a  nation,  as  China  once  was,  with  a  religious  pro 
paganda,  sending  missionaries  thousands  of  miles  be 
yond  its  borders ;  boasting  a  commerce,  and  gifted 
with  astronomers  and  geographers  of  no  mean  ability, 
we  must  certainly  believe  that  it  made  many  discoveries. 
And  when  we  find  its  pioneers  advancing  for  centuries 
in  a  certain  direction,  chronicling  correctly  every  step 
made,  and  accurately  describing  the  geography  and 
ethnography  of  every  region  on  the  way,  we  have  no 
ground  to  deny  the  last  advance  which  their  authentic 
history  claims  to  have  made,  however  indisposed  we 
may  be  to  admit  it.  One  thing,  at  least,  will  probably 
be  cheerfully  conceded  by  the  impartial  reader,  that  the 
subject  well  deserves  further  investigation,  which  it 
will  obtain  from  those  students  who  are  occupied  in 
exploring  the  mysteries  of  Oriental  literature  and  the 
archaeology  of  both  worlds. 


60       REMARKS  ON  TEXT  OF  PROF.  NEUMANN. 


NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  VI. 

I  would  not  be  understood  as  intimating  that  the  civilisation 
of  Fusang  was  simply  Peruvian.  Some  of  the  peculiarities 
observed  by  Hoei-shin — as,  for  example,  the  manner  of  wooing, 
the  exposure  of  the  dead,  and  the  possible  origin  of  his  Kingdom 
of  Women — existed  in  a  strongly-marked  form  among  the  Red 
Indians  ;  others  recall  New  Mexican  or  Aztec  culture,  as  it  may 
have  been  ere  driven  south  ;  and  there  are,  withal,  Siberian  - 
Mongolian  traces.  But  I  cannot  resist  the  feeling,  which  has 
grown  on  me  through  years  of  study  on  this  subject,  that  in  the 
fifth  century  the  Buddhist  monk  visited  a  race  combining 
characteristics  and  customs  which  afterwards  spread  to  the 
south  and  east.  All  that  he  observed  is  singularly  American, 
and,  from  the  tone  of  the  narrative,  was  evidently  new  to  the 
missionary.  Since  Prescott  wrote,  many  investigators  have 
declared  that  the  civilisation  once  attributed  entirely  to  the 
Iricas,  was  derived  by  them  from  earlier  races  which  they  had 
supplanted.  Thus  Thomas  J.  Hutchinson  ("  Two  Years  in 
Peru,  by  T.  J.  Hutchinson,  F.H.G.S.,  &c.,"  London,  1873)  tells 
us  that  the  Chincas  preceded  the  Yuncas,  and  that  the  Yun- 
cas  were  conquered  by  the  Inca  Pachacutec  so  recently  as  the 
fifteenth  century  of  our  era.  Tradition  also  gives  the  names  of 
several  races  as  preceding  the  Chincas  in  Peru.  It  is,  however, 
conjectured  that,  whatever  the  race  may  have  been  which  occu 
pied  Peru,  it  took  from  its  predecessors  culture  which  they  in 
like  manner  had  inherited.  In  endeavouring  to  find  some 
analogy  between  Fusang  as  described  by  Hoei-shin,  and  Peru 
as  described  by  Prescott,  I  by  no  means  consider  that  the  cus 
toms  attributed  to  the  Incas  were  unknown  before  their  time. 


LETTER 


FROM 


COLONEL  BARCLAY  KENNON 


ON  THE 


NAVIGATION  OF  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

NAVIGATION  OF  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC. 

IT  will  naturally  have  occurred  to  the  reader  that  the 
strongest  proof  which  can  be  alleged  in  favour  of  the 
journey  of  Hoei-shin  and  his  Buddhist  predecessors 
to  the  Continent  of  North  America  is  the  demonstration 
of  the  ease  with  which  it  could  be  performed.  This 
has  indeed  been  largely  shown  by  Professor  Neumann, 
and  I  am.  happy  in  being  able  to  state  that  more  recent 
researches  have  thrown  additional  light  on  this  very 
curious  question.  While  writing  the  last  pages  of  the 
foregoing  chapter,  I  was  so  fortunate  as  to  meet  in 
London  with  Colonel  Barclay  Kennon,  who  is  person 
ally  and  practically  familiar  with  every  step  which 
Hoei-shin  and  his  mysterious  five  predecessors  must 
have  taken,  he  having  been  the  navigating-officer  in  the 
North  Pacific,  China  Seas,  and  Behring's  Straits,  of 
the  United  States  North  Pacific  Surveying  Expedition, 
1853-56,  Lieutenant  John  Eodgers  commanding.  This 
gentleman  was  so  kind  as  to  take  an  interest  in  my 
work,  and  obligingly  communicated  to  me,  in  a  letter 
which  I  subjoin,  such  facts  as  he  could  recall  in  reference 
to  Professor  Neumann's  verifications.  I  trust  that  it 


64  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

will  not  be  out  of  place  for  me  to  state  that  Colonel 
Kennon,  a  graduate  of  Annapolis  Naval  Academy, 
United  States  of  America,  was  the  first  person  who 
ever  made  a  cast  of  the  lead  for  the  first  Transatlantic 
cable,  October  4,  1852,  and  in  1857  was,  as  Lieutenant 
of  the  United  States  Navy,  navigating-officer  of  the  ship 
Niagara,  by  which  the  first  Atlantic  cable  was  laid— 
although  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  as  is  the  case  with 
too  many  beginnings,  it  came  to  grief.  After  the  Civil 
War,  Lieutenant  Kennon  entered  the  Egyptian  service 
as  Colonel.  He  is  the  inventor  of  the  well-known 
Counterpoise  Battery,  for  the  protection  of  artillery  in 
coast  defence,  and  was  decorated  by  the  Khedive  for  the 
construction  of  a  fort  on  this  principle. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as  regards  the 
passage  of  the  short  distances  between  Asia  and  America 
by  the  Aleutian  chain,  where  one  is  out  of  sight  of  land 
for  a  very  short  time,  the  vessels  of  North-eastern  Asia 
were  formerly  built  for  long  voyages  and  oceanic  navi 
gation,  and  actually  did  sail  for  weeks  together  out  on 
the  open  sea ;  that  the  compass  was  probably  used  by 
them  before  the  fifth  century,  and  that  at  the  present 
day  Japanese  vessels  are  still  rigged  in  a  much  more 
sea-going  style  than  Chinese  junks,  and  are  conse 
quently  capable  of  easier  and  more  extended  navigation. 

The  evidence  offered  in  favour  of  the  discovery  of 
America  by  the  Chinese  Buddhists  of  the  fifth  century 
is  very  limited,  but  it  has  every  characteristic  of  a  serious 
State  document,  and  of  authentic  history.  It  is  dis- 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       65 

tinctly  recorded  amoDg  the  annals  of  the  Empire.  At 
the  time  these  journeys  were  undertaken,  thousands  of 
monks,  inspired  by  the  most  fanatical  zeal,  were  ex 
tending  their  doctrines  in  every  direction ;  and  this  they 
did  with  such  success,  that  though  Buddhism  has  now 
been  steadily  declining  for  many  centuries,  it  still 
numbers  more  followers  than  Christianity,  or  any  other 
religion  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  for  they  are  literally 
counted  by  hundreds  of  millions.  And  as  their  doctrines 
urged  propagandism,  it  would  be  almost  a  matter  of 
wonder  if  some  of  the  missionaries  of  the  faith  had 
not  found  their  way  over  an  already  familiar  route. 

LETTER  from  COLONEL  BARCLAY  KENNON,  formerly  of 
the  United  States  North  Pacific  Surveying  Expe 
dition. 

"  LONDON,  April  3,  1S74. 

"  DEAR  SIR, — As  regards  the  possible  passage  at  an 
early  age  of  Chinese  to  the  North  American  Continent, 
I  regret  to  say  that  I  have  devoted  too  little  thought 
to  such  a  subject  to  be  of  use  to  you,  beyond  giving  a 
fair  idea  of  the  distances  between  point  and  point  from 
China  to  Japan,  and  thence,  via  the  Kurile  and  Aleutian 
Islands,  to  the  Western  Coast  of  America.  I  have  at 
present  unfortunately  no  map,  chart,  or  notes  to  guide 
me  or  refresh  my  memory,  and  so  must  depend  solely 
upon  it.  Thus  far,  however,  it  has  not  misled  me  in 
other  respects,  and  it  certainly  should  not  in  this  case, 
if  it  be  considered  that  I  was  the  sailing-master  of  the 


66  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

surveying   schooner   which   was   specially  appointed   to 
follow,  examine,  and  map  out  this  route. 

"  After  leaving   Shanghai  direct  for  Japan,  a  vessel 
sights  Alceste  Island  when  about  200  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  upon  a  branch  of  which 
river,  the  AVoo-sung,  Shanghae  is  situated.     From  Al 
ceste  Island  to  the  Gotto  Islands,  which  are  directly  upon 
the  Japanese  coast,  and  two  miles  from  its  extreme 
western  end,   the    distance   is   about    120    miles.       In 
making   this   trip,    a  fair  wind,    with    <  plenty   of  it,' 
will    very    soon  take  a   vessel    from    point    to    point. 
The   distance  across  from    one    point    on    the  Chinese 
coast    is    still    shorter,    or     about     100    miles    S.  S.E. 
from    the     Yang-tse-kiang.       Many    islands    lie    off 
this    point,    which,  being    lost  sight  of  at   a  distance 
of  twenty  or  more  miles,  will  materially  diminish  the 
time  for  being  in  the  open  sea.     In  fact,  no  ordinary 
Chinese  or  Japanese  fisherman  would  hesitate  to  make 
these  trifling  voyages  for  so  short  a  time  out  of  sight 
of  land,  and  hundreds  do  make  much  more  dangerous 
ventures  every  day  along  the  coast.     From  the  Yang- 
tse-kiang   direct  to  the  coast  of  Korea  the  distance  is 
less    than    a    day's    sail,    or    only   eighteen   hours  by 
coasting  it,  till  we  reach  the  Straits  of  Korea,  when  a 
few  hours  take  us  over  to  the  Straits  of  Krusenstern. 
separated  by  islands,    and  thence  direct  to  the   Gotto 
Islands.     Or  we  may  sail  for  the  island  of  Oki,  and  cross 
the   straits  (which  received  in  our  survey,  and  on  our 
map,  the  name  of  Rodgers'  Straits),  which  are  from  ten 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       67 

to  twenty  miles  wide,  and  thus  reach  the  coast  of  Japan, 
la  either  case,  land  is  not  long  lost  sight  of,  the  open 
sea  distances  being  very  trifling. 

"  Starting  from  Hong  Kong  Island,  farther  south,  a 
run  of  thirty- six  hours  takes  us  to  the  island  of  For 
mosa.  To  the  eastward  of  it,  and  in  sight  from  each 
other,  are  the  Madjico  Sima  Islands,  and  to  the  eastward 
of  them  are  visible  those  of  Amakirima.  In  full  view 
with  these,  again,  the  southernmost  of  the  Loo-choo 
Islands,  dependencies  of  Japan,  of  which  Shapa  is  the 
capital,  heaves  in  sight.  Eunning  north  through  this 
group  to  the  coast  of  Japan,  one  island  is  hardly  below 
the  horizon  before  another  makes  its  appearance,  or  in 
a  very  few  hours,  the  last  being  in  sight  when  close  to 
the  south-west  end  of  Niphon,  the  largest  of  the  Japan 
ese  Islands.  These  latter  lie  N.E.  and  S.W.  ;  so  that 
by  following  either  coast-line  until  the  Kuriles  are 
reached,  land  will  always  be  in  sight.  The  Kurile 
Islands,  stretching  between  the  island  of  Matsumai 
(the  northernmost  of  the  Japan  group,  and  upon  which 
Hakododi,  the  chief  port  and  town,  is  situated),  and 
Cape  Lapatka,  the  southern  extremity  of  Kamtschatka, 
are  in  sight  from  each  other,  excepting  possibly  in  the 
'  Boussole  Passage,'  which  is  forty  or  more  miles  in 
width.  A  vessel  in  the  centre  of  it  will  have  the 
islands  marking  its  boundaries  in  sight;  so  that  as 
soon  as  the  voyager  passes  from  one  land,  he 
immediately  perceives  the  other.  Kamtschatka,  once 
seen,  is  not  easily  lost  sight  of,  as  its  high  mountains 


68  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

are  visible  for  more  than  a  hundred  miles.  The  highest 
peak,  just  north  of  Avataka  Bay,  containing  the  harbour 
and  remains  of  the  town  of  Petropaulski,  is  a  volcano  ; 
and,  if  my  memory  does  not  mislead  me,  it  is  more  than 
18,000  feet  in  height,  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  begin 
ning  some  distance  below  the  crater,  and  terminating 
at  a  point  some  thousands  of  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
This  line,  of  course,  offers  a  mark  which  can  be  seen 
farther  out  at  sea  than  would  a  mountain  of  the  same 
height,  if  entirely  covered  up  to  its  summit.  Proceed 
ing  along  this  coast  to  Cape  Kronotski,  which  lies 
north  of  Petropaulski,  the  distance  to  Behring's  Island 
is  about  150  miles — course,  east.  Fifteen  miles  only 
from  it  is  Copper  Island,  and  about  150  miles  south 
west  of  it  is  Attou  Island,  the  most  -westerly  of  the 
Aleutian  group,  which  is  an  almost  unbroken  chain, 
connecting  with  the  American  Continent  at  the  penin 
sula  of  Aliaska. 

"Attou  Island,  situated  in  latitude  53°  1ST.,  longitude 
173°  E.  (in  round  numbers),  has  the  pretty  little  har 
bour  of  Tchitchagoff,  which  we  surveyed  with  much 
care,  believing  that  it  might  prove  useful  at  some  future 
day.  Owing  to  the  trouble  and  care  with  which  this 
work  was  done,  the  three  islands  standing  off  its  en 
trance  were  named  after  the  vessel,  Cooper  ;  the  captain, 
Gibson ;  and  myself.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to 
state,  that  the  schooner  Fenimore  Cooper  was  originally 
a  small  New  York  pilot-boat  of  seventy-five  tons,  and 
that  for  two  years  in  these  stormy  Northern  Seas  I 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       69 

spent  a  happy  life  on  board  of,  and  sailed  upwards  of 
40,000  miles  in  her.  After  leaving  New  York  she 
went  to  Africa,  Java,  China,  Japan,  California,  and 
back  to  Japan,  where  she  finally  '  laid  her  bones  to 
dry.' 

"  Next  to  Alton  Island,  and  close  to  it,  is  Agattou 
and  Semichi ;  and  before  losing  sight  of  either  of  them, 
Boulder  Island,  distant  forty-five  miles  from  Agattou, 
heaves  in  sight.  Kusha,  the  Island  of  the  Seven  Moun 
tains — all  of  which  are  volcanoes,  either  extinct  or  active 
— and  Amtchitka  come  next.  These  are  the  Krysi  or 
Rat  Islands.  Next  to  Amtchitka,  in  the  Andranof 
group,  is  Tonago,  volcanic,  Adakh,  Atkha,  and  Ammnak, 
with  other  smaller  islands  between  them,  all  in  sight 
one  from  the  other.  Adakh  has  a  fair  harbour  for 
small  vessels,  but  is  not  inhabited.  We  were  three 
weeks  there.  In  Atkha  there  is  a  not  inconsiderable 
settlement,  and  good  anchorage.  Here  we  found  a  Greek 
priest,  whose  wife,  a  Georgian,  was  really  beautiful,  as 
were  their  two  daughters.  At  this  time  the  Russian 
War  was  at  its  height,  and  the  supplies  of  these  poor 
people  being  exhausted,  and  themselves  in  great  dis 
tress,  we  found  it  a  great  pleasure  to  relieve  them — 
particularly  the  ladies,  who  were  the  first  we  had 
seen  for  many  months.  I  need  not  say  how  delighted 
they  were  to  receive  a  good  stock  of  sugar,  coffee,  tea, 
medicines,  and  i  canned  fruit.' 

"  Between  Ammnak  and  Unalashka  are,  I  believe, 
eight  islands.  This  group  bears  the  name  of  the  Fox 


70  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

Islands.  The  whole  chain,  from  Attou  to  Unalashka 
inclusive,  is  called  the  Aleutians,  the  easternmost  of 
which  is  very  near  the  American  mainland,  or  peninsula 
of  Aliaska.  A  few  of  these  islands  are  inhabited,  the 
people  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Kuriles, 
who,  in  turn,  are  like  the  Nootka  Sound  Indians,1  whose 
country  is  on  the  mainland  to  the  eastward  of  the 
peninsula  of  Aliaska,  but  which  may  actually  be 
reached  either  in  a  vessel  or  on  foot  by  following  the 
coast-line. 

"  You  wish  to  know  if  I  can  adduce  any  proofs  or 
probabilities  that  during  the  great  period  from  the 
fifth  to  the  seventh  centuries,  when  the  world  was  so 
abundantly  busy  in  making  converts  to  its  several  re 
ligions,  Buddhist  priests  passed  by  these  islands.  II' 
they  did,  they  certainly  could  not  have  remained  long 
in  them,  and  must  have  hurried  to  the  more  hospitable 
shores  of  America.  For  there  is  literally  not  a  tree  on 
these  islands — in  fact,  nothing  resembling  one,  unless  1 
except  a  few  very  small  bushes,  the  tallest  not  more 
than  three  feet  high,  with  no  branches  larger  than  a 
man's  finger.  From  Aliaska  a  vessel  could  take  the 
roundabout  course  of  following  the  coast-line  to  reach 

1  I  have  verified  by  many  inquiries  the  assertion  that  there  is  a  con 
tinuous  line  of  likeness  between  the  natives  from  the  North-west  Coatst 
of  America  to  the  Asiatic  Continent.  "  I  find  myself  more  and  more 
inclined  to  believe,"  says  John  D.  Baldwin,  in  his  "Ancient  America," 
.  .  .  .  "  that  the  wild  Indians  of  the  north  came  originally  from  Asia, 
where  the  race  to  which  they  belong  seems  still  represented  by  the  KoraLs 
and  Cookchees  found  in  that  part  of  Asia  which  extends  to  Behring's 
Straits."— C.  G.  L. 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       71 

Sitka ;  but  a  run  of  three  or  four  days  would,  with,  a 
good  breeze,  make  the  trip  on  a  much  more  direct 
course — and  likewise  a  more  sensible  one — by  running 
down  among  the  islands  of  the  group  in  which  Sitka  is 
situated. 

"  From  this  place  Vancouver's  Island  is  soon  reached  ; 
that  is  to  say,  in  three  or  four  days,  with  land  in  sight 
nearly  every  hour  of  the  time.  Oregon  is  but  a  few 
hours'  sail  after  this  ;  and  by  keeping  in  with  the  land, 
any  lubber  of  a  navigator  can  see  his  way  down  the 
coast  to  Cape  Saint  Lucas,  the  southern  end  of  Cali 
fornia,  which  is  distant  about  200  miles  west  of  Maza- 
tlan,  Mexico.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  north 
ward,  or  from  the  north-westward,  with  a  current 
(Kuro-suvo)  setting  to  the  southward.  Vessels  bound 
down  the  coast,  to  the  southward,  make  the  run  quickly 
by  keeping  just  outside  the  influence  of  the  land-breezes  ; 
while  those  bound  up  the  coast  should  profit  by  them 
by  sailing  near  the  land.  A  small  vessel,  being  able 
to  run  close  in,  could  anchor  when  the  sea-breezes  set  in 
during  the  day,  but  should  lift  her  anchor  at  night,  to 
make  her  northings  with  those  from  the  land. 

"  From  what  I  have  written,  and  from  the  result  of 
the  most  accurate  scientific  observation,  it  is  evident 
that  the  voyage  from  China  to  America  can  be  made 
without  being  out  of  sight  of  land  for  more  than  a  few 
hours  at  any  one  time.  To  a  landsman,  unfamiliar  with 
long  voyages,  the  mere  idea  of  being  c  alone  on  the 
wide,  wide  sea,'  with  nothing  but  water  visible,  even 


72  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

for  an  hour,  conveys  a  strange  sense  of  desolation,  of 
daring,  and  of  adventure.  But  in  truth  it  is  regarded 
as  a  mere  trifle,  not  only  by  regular  seafaring  men,  but 
even  by  the  rudest  races  in  all  parts  of  the  world ;  and 
I  have  no  doubt  that  from  the  remotest  ages,  and  on 
all  shores,  fishermen  in  open  boats,  canoes,  or  even 
coracles,  guided  simply  by  the  stars  and  currents,  have 
not  hesitated  to  go  far  out  of  sight  of  land.  At  the 
present  day,  natives  of  many  of  the  South  Pacific 
Islands  undertake,  without  a  compass,  and  successfully, 
long  voyages  which  astonish  even  a  regular  Jack-tar, 
who  is  not  often  astonished  at  anything.  If  this  can 
be  done  by  savages,  it  hardly  seems  possible  that  the 
Asiatic-American  voyage  was  not  successfully  per 
formed  by  people  of  advanced  scientific  culture,  who 
had,  it  is  generally  believed,  the  compass,  and  who 
from  an  early  age  were  proficient  in  astronomy. 

"  But  though  this  voyage  from  the  oldest  portion 
of  the  Old  World — historically  speaking — to  the  newest 
portion  of  the  New,  can  be  made  by  remaining  almost 
constantly  in  sight  of  land,  I  do  not  recommend  it  ; 
and  I  am  sure  that  any  man  in  any  kind  of  a  boat, 
who  had  sufficient  enterprise  and  patience  to  undertake 
it,  would  have  easily  found  the  shorter  route.  But 
there  is  a  still  stronger  argument  for  the  voyage  across 
having  been  undertaken,  in  this,  that  Chinese  sailors 
had  long  been  travelling  in  a  route  of  which  this  was  a 
mere  continuation,  and  that  not  a  very  difficult  one. 
For,  in  reality,  from  Singapore  in  Malacca  to  Batavia 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       73 

ill  the  island  of  Java,  and  to  Shanghai  in  China,  the 
trip  is  almost  an  actual  coasting  one,  the  steamers 
nowadays  running  from  point  to  point.  To  a  lands 
man  it  is  doubtless  pleasant  to  see  fresh  islands  every 
day,  but  a  sailor  greatly  prefers  the  open  sea,  until  he 
makes  the  land  near  his  port.  From  Hakododi,  Japan, 
the  arc  of  the  great  circle  joining  it  with  San  Francisco 
passes  almost  exactly  beside  the  central  island  of  the 
Aleutians.  This  distance  is  about  4250  miles.  One 
objection  to  the  route  is  this,  the  fogs  about  those 
islands  being  actually  ten  times  worse,  in  every  way, 
than  those  of  London,  they  are  avoided  as  much  as 
possible  by  steering  farther  south,  or  rather  by  running 
more  directly  to  the  east.  I  may  mention  in  this  re 
lation,  that  I  had  a  Kamtschatka  dog  on  board  the 
schooner,  and  found  him  more  useful  as  a  "  look-out  " 
than  a  shipload  of  sailors  could  have  been,  since  they 
could  have  done  literally  nothing,  while  the  dog  seemed 
strangely  attracted  towards  the  land,  and  when  smelling 
it,  invariably  stood  with  his  head  towards  it,  barking 
aloud,  so  that  we  were  more  than  once  thereby  warned 
of  its  too  close  proximity. 

"  We  have  on  our  own  coast,  or  that  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America,  the  Gulf  Stream,  which, 
flowing  off  to  the  eastward,  and  striking  the  shores  of 
Europe,  falls  on  them,  and  on  those  of  Africa,  down  to 
about  the  equator,  then  running  west  to  the  coast  of 
South  America,  passes  its  northern  shores  up  through 
the  Carribean  Sea  to  between  Yucatan  and  Cuba,  and 


74  LETTER  FROM  COL.   B.  KENNON  ON 

renews  its  course  through,  the  Straits  of  Florida,  and 
again  up  our  coast.  Now  in  the  North  Pacific  there 
is  another  stream,  called  the  Kuro-suvo,  or  Japanese 
Current,  which,  passing  up  the  south-east  side  of  the 
Japanese  coast,  flows  off  to  the  eastward  until  it 
reaches  California  ;  then  running  down  that  coast, 
and  that  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  to  latitude 
10°  N.  (more  or  less),  meets  the  Peruvian  or  Hum- 
boldt  Current,  when  both  bear  away  to  the  west  and 
form  the  Northern  Equatorial  Current,  which,  extending 
to  the  Ladrone  Islands,  in  latitude  18°,  longitude  145°, 
turns  towards  the  northernmost  of  the  Lorchas  Islands, 
and  finally  completes  the  circuit  on  the  coast  of  Japan. 
It  is  much  like  the  Atlantic  Gulf  Stream  in  many 
particulars,  and  its  current  is  quite  as  strong  in  certain 
places,  though  the  water  in  it  is  not  so  warm.  This 
current  is  of  great  utility  to  vessels  bound  to  the  east 
ward,  its  counter-current  being  of  course  of  correspond 
ing  advantage  to  those  sailing  westward. 

"  From  what  I  know  of  the  track  across  from  Asia  to 
America,  and  from  what  I  have  seen  of  the  Japanese  and 
Chinese,  I  have  no  doubt  whatever  that  from  very  early 
times  they  occasionally  visited  our  American  shores. 
Assuming  that  they  took  the  route  which  I  have  de 
scribed,  they  would  have  been  constantly  in  sight  of 
land ;  and  there  is  something  in  the  nature  and  appear 
ance  of  the  frequently-recurring  islands  which  would 
naturally  tempt  farther  exploration,  and  lead  them  on. 
The  weather  is,  it  is  true,  cold  at  Behring's  Straits 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       75 

even  in  summer,  but  not  one-fourth  so  cold  as  at 
Matsumai,  Japan,  in  winter.  A  Japanese  vessel,  run 
ning  up  the  Kamtschatka  coast  to  the  Bay  of  St 
Lawrence  in  Siberia,  would  have,  at  the  utmost,  only 
a  day's  sail,  but  probably  less,  to  reach  America;  and  by 
going  that  distance  farther  north,  her  crew  could  see 
land  across  Behring's  Straits  through  the  whole  passage 
during  the  summer  season,  it  being  then  free  from  ice, 
with  an  open  sea  and  a  moderate  degree  of  cold.  Nothing 
is  more  likely  than  that  such  visits  were  made  by  fur- 
hunters  in  former  years;  and  as  so  many  foreign  countries 
]ay  within  such  easy  sailing  distance,  it  is  probable  that 
the  Chinese  and  Japanese  Governments— especially  the 
latter — issued  edicts  for  the  building  of  all  vessels  upon 
a  model  which  should  very  much  limit  their  navigation, 
and  confine  them  to  short  cruises. 

"  Few  would  believe,  who  are  familiar  with  the 
Portuguese  of  the  present  day,  or  with  their  marine, 
that  this  people  once  supplied  the  adventurous  navi 
gators  who  found  their  way  to  India  by  the  way  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  and  yet  it  is  less  than  three 
hundred  years  since  Vasco  di  Gama  made  that  famous 
cruise.  He  coasted,  as  the  records  of  the  voyage  show, 
and  as  the  time  spent  would  of  itself  prove  ;  and 
it  is  quite  likely  that  Chinese  and  Japanese  did  the 
same  thing  until  the  sterns  of  their  vessels  were  i  stove 
in '  by  order  of  their  Governments,  to  restrict  them  to 
cruising  nearer  home. 

"  Columbus  had  a  very  different  kind  of  work  to  do, 


76  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

for  during  the  long  cruise  of  many  weeks  which,  he 
spent  at  sea,  he  saw  nothing  whatever  until  the  end 
of  his  journey.  Two  of  his  vessels  were  much  larger 
than  the  little  schooner '  in  which  I  sailed  so  many 
thousands  of  miles,  and  the  Japanese  junks  with 
which  I  am  familiar  were  generally  five  times  larger, 
and  with  eight  times  the  capacity  of  the  little  Fenimore 
Cooper.  There  is  certainly  no  reason  why  they  could 
not  keep  the  sea  as  long  as  any  other  vessel.  Columbus 
had  (  caravels/  which  were  more  or  less  open,  but  this 
is  not  the  case  with  the  Japanese  junks,  which  are 
entirely  closed. 

"  It  is  of  some  importance  in  this  connection  to  ob 
serve,  that  when  surveying  the  coast  of  Japan  in  1854, 
I  found  the  Japanese  charts  to  be  invariably  very  cor 
rect  ;  their  latitudes,  which  came  directly  from  ob 
servations  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  being  particularly 
so.  Their  longitudes,  of  course,  did  not  agree  with  ours, 
for  we  were  ignorant  of  their  starting-point  or  primary 
meridian.  The  relative  bearings  and  distances  of  places 
one  from  the  other,  with  the  outlines  of  the  coast,  were 
singularly  accurate. 

"  The  Japanese  have  doubtless  very  often  made  in 
voluntary  voyages  of  much  greater  extent,  and  far  more 
dangerous,  than  this  from  continent  to  continent.  In 
1849,  when  I  was  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  I  learned 
that  an  American  whaler  had  picked  up  a  Japanese  junk 
about  2300  miles  south-east  of  Japan,  and  had  sent  her 
people  to  China  on  board  a  passing  vessel,  from  which 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       77 

country  they  doubtless  found  their  way  back  to  their 
home.  And  I  can  distinctly  remember  that  five  years 
ago,  and  two  years  since  alsoa  Japanese  junks  were 
found  among  the  Aleutian  Islands,  having  been  drifted 
thither  by  the  Kuro-suvo  Current,  and  impelled  by 
westerly  gales  of  wind.  One  was  picked  up  on  Adakh, 
which  is  nearly  half-way  over  to  San  Francisco.  Had 
these  vessels  been  supplied  with  provisions,  with  such 
a  trip  in  view  as  that  of  crossing  the  Pacific,  there  was 
nothing  whatever  to  prevent  their  making  it  to  and  fro. 
In  1854  and  1855,  when  I  was  last  in  Japan,  I  often 
saw  both  women  and  children  on  board  junks  in  which 
they  had  been  to  the  Loo-choo  Islands.  Those  I  met 
with  in  the  latter  islands  seemed  to  be  as  much  the 
habitual  homes  of  their  owners  and  families  as  are  the 
Chinese  river-boats  homes  to  those  who  inhabit  them. 
In  China  one  sees  many  families  which  have  for  gene 
rations  been  born  and  reared  on  board  these  little  boats. 
And  at  present  the  actual  floating  population  on  the 
Canton  river  alone  is  estimated  at  over  a  million  of 
souls. 

"  I  have  always  regarded  the  Sandwich  Islanders  as 
cousins  of  the  Japanese.  There  is  quite  enough  in  the 
general  appearance  of  the  two  races  to  justify  one  in 
believing  it.  To  me  it  seems  as  if  some  other  blood 
existed  there,  very  largely  mingled  or  alloyed  with 
Japanese,  and  the  difference  in  manners,  customs,  reli 
gion,  and  other  forms  of  culture,  is  owing  to  the 
Japanese  element  being  in  the  minority.  But  suppos- 


78  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

ing  them  to  have  altogether  descended  from  the 
Japanese,  and  this  is  far  from  being  improbable,1  the 
few  who  first  landed  there,  and  from  whom  the  whole 
group  was  peopled,  found,  in  organising,  voluntarily  or 
involuntarily,  a  new  form  of  government  and  new  in 
stitutions,  no  more  necessity  to  copy  after  their  old 
types  than  did  the  early  settlers  of  America  in  framing 
theirs.  In  fact,  if  they  were  exiles,  like  the  first  settlers 
of  Iceland  and  many  other  countries,  their  natural  im 
pulse  would  be  to  avoid  forming  anything  like  the 
tyranny  from  which  they  had  fled  or  were  banished. 
The  Japanese  have  always  had  a  highly-organised  reli 
gion,  while  the  Sandwich  Islanders  had  as  nearly  none 
as  was  possible,  and  the  melancholy  history  of  their 
degradation  and  decay  under  European  culture  seems 
to  indicate  that  they  are  incapable  of  receiving  any. 
As  to  the  difference  or  non-existence  of  customs,  we 
have  only  to  go  to  any  of  the  i  new  countries  '  of  the 
present  day  to  see  that  the  so-called  habits  and  pecu 
liarities  of  mankind,  which  once  gave  such  interest  to 

1  It  is  a  well-established  fact,  and  one  within  rny  own  observation,  that 
the  children  of  Irish  parents  in  America,  even  in  the  first  generation,  change 
materially  from  the  ancestral  Celtic  type.  This  is  especially  remarkable 
in  the  girls,  even  when  born  and  bred  in  the  backwoods.  The  face  becomes 
more  oval,  and  the  eyes  darker  (when  not  Gahvegian,  or  naturally  dark), 
and  softer  in  expression.  The  pure,  unmixed  Pennsylvania  German  stock 
retain  the  broad  shoulders  and  heavy  figure  of  their  ancestors  ;  but  the 
hair  is  generally  much  darker,  and  the  eyes,  which  are  often  very  beautiful, 
are,  as  in  the  Irish  instance,  larger.  The  same  holds  good,  but  in  a  less 
degree,  I  believe,  of  the  children  of  English  parents.  The  child  of 
"  Boston  people,"  born  in  New  Orleans,  often  becomes  in  the  first  genera 
tion  a  Creole,  pale,  sallow,  and  with  constantly  cold  hands. — C.  G.  L. 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN. 


79 


elementary  works  on  geography,  are  everywhere  vanish 
ing  as  guides  to  help  one  in  tracing  the  origin  of  races  ; 
in  fact,  if  civilisation  at  the  present  day,  unlike  the 
ancient,  were  not  accompanied  by  the  spirit  of  anti 
quarian  research,  and  a  passion  for  recording  all  that  it 
learns,  the  past  would  soon  vanish  as  regards  all  races 
without  a  written  history.  The  differences  in  the  mode 
of  life,  and  in  many  other  things,  between  the  United 
States  and  England,  are  very  marked.  The  Loo-chooese 
also  vary  in  many  respects  from  the  Japanese,  although 
their  islands  are  in  sight  of  each  other,  and  the  for 
mer  are  dependencies  of  the  latter.  Napa-kiang,  in 
Loo-choo,  is  built  of  stone,  while  all  the  large  Japanese 
cities  are  of  wood.  Again,  the  manner  of  dressing 
the  hair  varies  entirely  in  these  provinces,  a  matter 
which,  while  small  in  itself,  constitutes  a  very  serious 
difference  in  a  race  with  which  such  trifles  are  of 
almost  radical  importance.  The  Loo-chooese  and 
Japanese  are  the  same  people,  but  they  build  their 
houses  differently,  simply  because  one  country  abounds 
in  wood  and  the  other  in  stone ;  and  the  difference  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  hair  has  doubtless  been  deter 
mined  by  some  law  of  climate,  or  caprice  on  the  part 
of  a  ruler  either  in  fashion  or  politics — the  two  being 
in  this  country  generally  combined. 

"  The  islands  of  the  Pacific  are  remarkably  alike, 
both  as  regards  size  and  general  appearance ;  and  as 
Oceanica  is  to  the  leeward  of  Japan,  and  the  resem 
blance  between  their  respective  populations  has  occurred 


8o  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

to  every  sailor  who  has  been  in  the  two  countries,  it 
is  a  very  rational  conclusion  that  these  places  have 
been  settled  from  the  mainland  by  mariners  blown 
out  of  their  course.  Such  mishaps  occur  every  two 
or  three  years  at  the  present  day,  and  such  have 
occurred  for  hundreds,  and  it  may  b.e  for  thousands, 
of  years.  The  ancient  and  confirmed  habit  of  both 
Japanese  and  Chinese,  of  taking  women  to  sea  with 
them,  or  of  traders  keeping  their  families  on  board, 
would  fully  account  for  the  population  of  these  islands, 
even  if  they  had  been  originally  deserts.  We  have 
only  to  suppose  the  same  impulses  and  causes  acting  in 
the  more  easily-travelled  eastern  direction,  along  the 
Aleutian  chain,  in  seas  abounding  with  fish  and  easily 
navigable,  to  conjecture  whether  such  adventurers, 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  ever  reached  America  from 
Asia.  The  mere  resemblance  of  immense  numbers 
of  North  American  Indians  to  the  so-called  Mon 
golian  tribes  is  a  sufficient  answer  to  such  a  question. 
Respectfully  and  truly  yours, 

"  BARCLAY 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

REMARKS  ON  COLONEL  KENNON's  LETTER. 

THE  letter  from  Colonel  Kenuon,  and  more  particularly 
the  argument  for  the  settlement  of  Oceanica  from  Japan, 
are  links  in  the  chain  of  circumstantial  evidence,  showing 
that  in  all  probability  the  inhabitants  of  Eastern  Asia 
once  passed  to  Western  America.  I  myself  have  seen 
Sandwich  Islanders  of  the  best  class,  well-educated — 
occupying,  in  fact,  the  position  of  ladies  and  gentlemen — 
who  were  not  to  be  distinguished  by  me  from  the  same 
class  of  Japanese,  only  that  the  Sandwich  Islanders 
seemed  to  be  rather  the  better-looking.  Some  of  the 
Pacific  islands  are  even  now  uninhabited,  which  ren 
ders  it  the  more  probable  that  those  which  are  no': 
derived  their  population  from  the  country  which  lies, 
as  Colonel  Kennon  remarks,  "  to  the  windward.'' 
Taking  everything  therefore  into  consideration,  the 
scientific  character  of  early  Chinese  and  Japanese  navi 
gation,  the  crowded  state  of  the  empires,  which,  despite 
stringent  laws,  continually  compelled  thousands  to 
either  live  on  the  water,  or  seek  a  living  by  voyaging ; 
the  islands  thousands  of  miles  away  which  were  pro- 


82  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

bably  peopled  by  them,  and  the  great  ease  with  which 
the  journey  by  the  Aleutian  Islands  could  be  accom 
plished,  we  have  a  chain  of  inductions  which  require 
only  the  least  fact  to  establish  the  whole  as  truth. 
This  fact  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  record  of  the 
journey  of  Hoei-shin.  All  that  now  remains  is  the 
hope  that,  if  curiosity  and  inquiry  should  be  stimulated 
by  the  publication  of  what  is  here  given,  further  re 
search  may  be  made  in  China,  or  in  its  ancient  records, 
for  clearer  evidence.  I  have  heard  it  said  that  it  is 
commonly  related  by  the  Chinese  in  California  that 
their  ancestors  had  preceded  them  by  many  centuries 
in  that  country,  which  tradition  was  once  recorded  in  a 
San  Francisco  newspaper.  This  may  have  originated 
in  some  obscure  version  of  the  old  story  of  Hoei-shin, 
but  then  it  is  not  impossible  that  there  are  sources  of 
information  extant  on  this  subject  which  were  never 
known  to  Europeans. 

As  regards  the  discovery  of  America  by  the  Norse 
men,  while  there  is  apparently  good  direct  evidence  to 
establish  what  is  now  (popularly,  at  least)  regarded  as  a 
fact,  the  chain  of  general  and  presumptive  evidence  is 
not  so  strong  as  that  which  indicates  the  probable 
transit  of  Chinese  or  Japanese  to  Aliaska.  It  is  true 
the  Icelanders  were  dauntless  seamen  and  reckless 
adventurers,  and  that  the  passage  to  Greenland  pre 
sented  no  great  difficulty  to  them.  But  all  these 
conditions  existed  equally  as  regards  seamanship,  and 
to  a  much  higher  degree  as  to  the  ease  of  the  journey, 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       83 

for  Japanese  or  their  neighbours.  Scandinavia  and 
Iceland  were  never  at  any  time  more  than  thinly  popu 
lated  ;  but  the  teeming  millions  of  Eastern  Asia  have 
in  all  ages  been  proverbial.  It  is  certainly  true  that 
one  fact  is  worth  all  the  presumptive  evidence  which  can 
be  imagined ;  and  it  is  equally  true  that  the  least  fact 
is  entitled  to  peculiar  consideration  and  respect  when 
heralded  and  supported  on  every  side  by  probabilities. 
"\Ihere  is  a  class  of  very  unscientific  writers  on 
many  subjects,  but  especially  on  Ethnology,  who  affect 
a  negative  method  in  everything,  and  ridicule  every 
new  thing  as  belonging  rather  to  the  realm  of  fairy 
tales  than  to  science.  With  these  writers  nothing 
was  ever  derived  from  a  strange  source,  or  could  have 
come  from  anything  of  which  they  were  ignorant. 
This  tendency  is  not  inspired  by  truth,  but  by  that 
timidity  rather  than  prudence  which  dreads  failure  or 
ridicule,  and  contents  itself  with  theorising  and  ar 
ranging  in  the  track  of  bolder  minds  and  true  dis 
coverers.  Opposition  to  or  belief  in  what  they  regard 
as  "religion,"  has  also  much  to  do  with  this  spirit 
of  denial,  since  many,  and  indeed  far  too  many  writers, 
are  guided  in  every  department  of  science  by  a  desire 
to  prove  or  disprove  Christianity,  rather  than  to  find 
out  what  is  true.  To  them  all  the  extraordinary  coin 
cidences  of  serpent-worship,  monolithic  groups,  cups, 
winged  globes,  or  crosses  in  monuments,  are  merely 
phenomena  of  an  accidental  nature,  and  the  most  natural 
things  in  the  world,  such  as  must  have  occurred  to 


84  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

everybody.  In  philology  they  are  identical  with  that 
very  large  class  of  unthinking  and  generally  uneducated 
people  who  deem  it  useless  to  seek  for  the  origin  of 
cant  words  or  popular  phrases,  so  convinced  are  they 
that  such  "  catches"  come  spontaneously  to  people's 
lips.  "  Everybody  uses  them,  so  they  must  have  come 
of  themselves  to  everybody,"  said  a  man  of  this  class 
once  to  me.  "  A  man  can't  help  saying  them."  Now, 
as  much  research  in  this  field  has  convinced  me  that 
every  popular  saying  has  a  decided  origin,  popular 
belief  to  the  contrary,  it  seems  most  probable  that  such 
very  positive  matters  as  religions  and  myths,  which  are 
difficult  to  learn,  are,  with  the  customs  which  they 
involve,  more  generally  transmitted,  however  remotely, 
than  easily  invented.  A  snake  is  a  singular  object,  and 
its  motion  on  the  ground  is  very  much  like  the  winding 
course  of  a  great  river,  and  the  island  or  islands  so 
generally  found  in  the  delta  of  a  river  naturally  suggest 
something  held  in  the  mouth  of  the  snake;  and  yet  I  do 
not  think  that  the  idea  of  a  serpent  with  a  ball  at  its 
mouth  is  so  very  palpable  a  religious  symbol,  and  one 
so  innate,  that  it  should  be  the  very  first  thing  which 
would  occur  as  an  emblem  of  the  great  deity  of  the 
waters,  to  aboriginal  Egyptians,  to  monolith-setters  in 
Brittany,  to  mound-builders  in  Ohio,  to  Peruvians  and 
Mexicans.  In  fact,  I  deem  it  not  altogether  impossible 
that  this  poetical  collocation  of  the  serpent  as  a  type  of 
a  river,  and  the  ball,  simple  and  self-suggesting  as  it 
is,  has  never  occurred  to  many  of  my  readers.  It  would 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       85 

be  preposterous  to  deny  what  Sir  John  Lubbock  has  all 
but  proved  in  "  The  Origin  of  Civilisation,"  that  many 
methods  of  worship  have  occurred  independently  and 
spontaneously  to  savage  races  widely  remote  one  from 
the  other.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  few  impartial  inves 
tigators  will  deny  that  transmission  has  also  been  a 
wonderful  element  in  what  Germans  call  culture. 

If  Buddhist  priests  were  really  the  first  men  who, 
within  the  scope  of  written  history  and  authentic  annals, 
went  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New,  the  fact  is  of 
great  value  in  itself,  and  one  which  must  doubtless 
lead  the  way  to  much  important  knowledge  as  to  all 
the  early  settlement  or  culture  of  Old  America.  And 
if  it  be  a  fact,  it  will  sooner  or  later  be  proved.  Nothing 
can  escape  History  that  belongs  to  it.  Within  a  gene 
ration  Egypt  and  Assyria  have  yielded  the  greatest 
secrets  of  their  language  and  life  to  patient  inquiry ; 
every  week  at  present  sees  the  most  wonderful  conquests, 
from  the  dreamy  realm  of  myth  and  fable  to  that  of 
material  record  and  fact.  I  do  not  know  how  or  when 
it  will  be,  but  I  am  persuaded  that  ancient  America 
will  in  time  yield  her  Moabite  stones  and  Rosetta 
slabs  to  the  patient  inquirer.  The  records  of  Mexico 
were  carefully  destroyed  by  wicked  bigots,  who,  not 
satisfied  with  exterminating  a  flourishing  and  happy 
nation,  sought  to  commit  a  double  murder  by  killing 
its  past  life.  But  it  will  be  found  again ;  for  science 
will  yet  achieve  that,  and  more. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TRAVELS  OF    OTHER    BUDDHIST  PRIESTS  (FROM  THE  FOURTH 
TO   THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY). 

PERHAPS  the  strongest  link  in  the  chain  of  circumstan 
tial  evidence  which  can  be  adduced  to  prove  that  Hoei- 
shin  and  others  penetrated  to  California  and  Mexico, 
is  one  which  has  been  almost  neglected  by  Professor 
Neumann,  so  lightly  does  he  touch  upon  it.  I  refer  to  the 

zeal  with  which/Buddhist  monks  wandered  for  centuries 
t-  - 

forth  from  China,  through  regions  so  remote,  and  among 
perils  of  so  trying  a  nature,  that  the  journey  of  Hoei- 
shin  and  of  his  predecessors  seems,  when  we  study  the 
route,  and  allow  that  they  probably  travelled  in  summer, 
comparatively  a  pleasure-trip,  i  The  result  of  these 
missionary  enterprises  was  fortunately  a  large  collection 
of  published  "Voyages  and  Travels,"  several  of  which 
are  still  extant.  Of  late  years  the  interesting  nature 
of  these  works  has  caused  the  translation  of  several  of 
the  more  important  into  European  languages  ;  and  of 
these  I  propose  to  make  some  slight  mention,  supposing 
that  a  little  account  of  such  writings  would  be  accept 
able,  as  bearing  on  the  character  of  the  first  discoverers 


LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON,  ETC.          87 

of  America.  For,  little  as  we  have  of  the  record  of 
Hoei-shin,  its  general  resemblance  to  that  of  the  other 
Buddhist  missionary  travellers  is  so  striking,  that  no 
one  can  fail  to  detect  a  marked  family  likeness. 

Chief  in  the  work  of  translation  from  these  journals 
is  the  celebrated  Chinese  scholar  Stanislas  Julien,  whose 
versions  of  Buddhist  travels  into  French  fill  over  1500 
octavo  pages.  From  these  works  it  is  evident  that  it 
was  a  special  matter  of  pride  among  those  missionaries 
to  excel  their  predecessors  in  the  extent  of  their 
journeys,  and  in  the  zeal  or  success  with  which  they 
distributed  the  doctrines  and  sacred  images  of  Buddha. 
References  to  these  sacred  images  abound  in  Bud 
dhistic  works,  indicating  that  immense  numbers  must 
have  been  carried  to  all  places  where  the  missionaries 
penetrated.  One  of  these  works  of  pious  adventure  is 
the  very  interesting  "  History  of  the  Life  of  Hiouen- 
thsang,  and  of  his  Travels  in  India,  from  the  year 
629  to  645.  Followed  by  documents  and  geographical 
explanations,  drawn  from  the  original  narrative.  Trans 
lated  by  Stanislas  Julien,  Member  of  the  Institute  of 
France,  &c.  Paris,  1853." 

"  From  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era  to  the 
tenth,"  says  Julien,  "  the  Chinese  pilgrims  who  went 
into  the  countries  west  of  China,  and  particularly  into 
India,  to  study  the  doctrine  of  Buddha,  and  bring  back 
the  books  containing  it,  have  published  a  great  number 
of  narratives,  itineraries  and  descriptions,  more  or  less 


83  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

extended,  of   the   countries  which  they  visited 

Unfortunately  the  greater  part  have  perished,  unless 
they  remain  buried  in  some  obscure  convent  in  China." 
Thus  we  cannot  sufficiently  regret  the  loss  of  "  The 
Description  of  Western  Countries,"  by  Chi-tao'-an,1  a 
Chinese  Shaman,  who  became  a  monk  in  316,  and  con 
sequently  preceded  Fa-Lien,  who  did  not  go  forth  until 
the  year  339  of  our  era.  But  the  loss  most  to  be 
regretted  is,  unquestionably,  "  The  Description  of 
Western  Countries,  in  Sixty  Volumes,  with  Forty  Books 
of  Pictures  and  Maps,"  which,  edited  in  accordance  with 
an  Imperial  decree,  by  many  official  writers,  after  the 
memoirs  of  the  most  distinguished  religious  and  secular 
authors,  appeared  in  the  year  666,  with  an  introduc 
tion  written  by  the  Emperor  Kao-thsang,  the  cost  being 
defrayed  by  Government.  This  work  was  entitled, 
in  the  original  Chinese,  Si-yu-tchi-lou-chi-kouen,  Hoa- 
thou-sse-chi-kiouen  ("  A  Description  of  the  Western 
Countries,  in  Sixty  Books,  with  Forty  Books  of  Illus 
trations  and  Maps,"  as  above).  M.  Stanislas  Julien 
was  apparently  not  aware  that  a  copy  of  this  work  was 
kept  in  the  Royal  Palace  at  Pekin,  as  any  book  written, 
though  only  in  part,  by  an  Emperor,  would  naturally 
be,  in  accordance  with  Chinese  custom.  It  was,  how 
ever,  unfortunately  burned  in  the  "  looting "  of  the 
Summer  Palace,  in  which  perished  such  masses  of  valu- 

1  Clu-tao'-an-si-yu-tchi.  Vide  the  Cyclopaedia  Youen-kien-louai-han, 
published  in  710,  bk.  cccxvi.  p.  10;  and  the  life  of  this  priest  in  Ching- 
seng-tch'ouen;  bk.  ii.  p.  1. 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       89 

able  historical  and  literary  material,  never  to  be  re 
covered.  This  work  has  been  called  a  description  of 
the  Chinese  Empire,  but  from  the  exact  account  of 
it  which  has  been  published,  it  was  evidently  the  one 
spoken  of  by  Julien.  In  fact,  a  carefully-detailed  de 
scription  of  the  Chinese  Empire  in  the  seventh  century, 
fully  illustrated,  must  have  been  in  great  part  quite 
the  same  as  "  A  Journey  to  the  West,"  and  it  is  not 
likely  that  two  works  of  such  magnitude,  and  on  almost  • 
the  same  subject,  were  published  contemporaneously  at 
such  enormous  expense  as  they  must  have  involved. 
"  It  would  be  worthwhile,"  Julien  continues,  "  for  the 
Catholic  missionaries  who  live  near  Nankin  to  seek  for 
this  work  in  the  valuable  library  of  that  city,  where  my 
friend,  the  late  Mr  Eobert  Thorn,  former  British  Consul, 
discovered,  and  persuaded  me  to  copy,  ten  years  ago, 
232  volumes  in  quarto,  of  texts  and  commentaries, 
which  for  centuries  were  to  be  found  no  longer  in  any 
other  Chinese  library.  At  present  there  are  only  six 
works  of  this  kind — i.e.,  Buddhist  travels — in  the 
original  text,  and  duplicates  of  these  are  to  be  found 
in  France  and  Russia.  Their  names  and  dates  are  as 
follows : — 

I.  Memoir  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Buddha.      Edited  by 
Fa-hien,  a  Chinese  monk,  who  left  the  Kingdom  of  the 
West  in  the  year   399  of  our  era,  and  visited  thirty 
kingdoms. 

II.  Memoir  of  Hoei-seng  and  of  Song-yun,  envoys  to 


90  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

India  in  518,  by  order  of  the  Empress,  to  seek  for 
sacred  books  and  relics. 

III.  Memoirs  of  Western  Countries.  Edited  in  the 
year  648  by  Hiouen-thsaug.  This  work  was  written 
originally  "  in  the  language  of  India.  It  embraces  a 
description  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  kingdoms  ; 
although,  according  to  a  Chinese  authority,  Hiouen- 
thsang  had  only  been  in  one  hundred  and  ten."  The 
extraordinary  number  of  countries  visited  by  this  mis 
sionary,  and  his  manifest  desire  to  make  his  travels 
appear  as  extended  as  possible,  give  a  strong  colour 
of  probability  to  the  assertion  that  these  monks 
went  wherever  they  could,  and  explored  the  remotest 
regions,  deterred  by  no  dangers.  Since  they  brought 
the  religion  of  Buddha  to  distant  places  in  Siberia, 
as  the  curious  black  Buddhistic  books  from  that 
country  now  in  St  Petersburg  prove,  and  to  Karnts- 
chatka  and  the  Aleutian  Islands,  nothing  is  more 
probable  than  that  such  zealous  propagandists  should 
have  gone  a  step  beyond,  and  have  arrived  in  a  part  of 
the  North  American  Continent  where  reports  of  Aztec  or 
other  civilisation  must  have  lured  them  still  farther  on. 

IY.  History  of  the  Master  of  the  Law  of  the  Three 
Collections  of  the  Convent  of  Grand  Benevolence. 
This  work,  the  first  editing  of  which  was  by  Hoei-li, 
continued  and  edited  by  Yen-thsang,  both  contem 
poraries  of  Hiouen-thsang,  contains  the  history  of  his 
remarkable  journey,  accompanied  by  very  interesting 
biographical  details  wanting  in  the  original  narrative. 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       91 

V.  The  History  and  the  Journeys  of  Fifty-six  Monks 
of  the  Dynasty  of  Thang,  who  went  to    the  West  of 
China  to  seek  the  Law. 

VI.  The  Itinerary  of  the  Travels  of  Khi-nie. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  the  authenticity  of  the  great 
work  of  Hiouen-thsang,  which  has  been  impugned  by 
one  or  two  European  writers,  has  been  triumphantly 
vindicated  by  M.  Julien.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
that  in  every  instance  these  journeys  were  carried 
out  to  the  end  proposed,  and  that  the  books  are  dona 
fide  narratives.  They  are  as  authentic  as  the  accounts 
of  modern  Episcopal,  Presbyterian,  Methodist,  or  other 
missionaries.  It  is  true  that,  like  Hoei-shin  or  Hero 
dotus,  these  monks  often  narrate  extravagant  miracles 
and  marvels  as  they  heard  them  ;  and  it  maybe  that  they 
lend  too  ready  a  faith  to  them — as  did  Sir  John  Man- 
deville,  and  most  early  travellers.  But  where  they  said 
they  had  been,  they  had  gone.  This  is  apparent 
enough.  And  there  is  no  reason  for  rejecting  the  story 
of  Hoei-shin,  any  more  than  that  of  his  contem 
poraries,  because  he  narrates  hearsay  wonders. 

Another  very  interesting  work  of  this  school,  which 
will  be  found  more  readily  accessible  to  my  readers 
than  the  somewhat  rare  and  costly  translations  of  M. 
Julien,  is  "  The  Travels  of  Fah-hian,  from  400  to  415 
A.D.,"  and  "The  Mission  of  Sung-yun."  Both  of 
these  were  Buddhist  pilgrims  from  China  to  India,  and 
their  two  books,  rendered  into  English  by  Samuel  Beal, 


92  LETTER  FROM  COL,  B.  KENNON  ON 

have  been  published  in  one  volume  by  N.  Triibner,  57 
Ludgate  Hill,  London.  Of  the  character  of  these  works, 
something  may  be  inferred  from  the  motto  taken  from 
the  life  of  Gaudama,  by  the  Eight  Rev.  P.  Bigandet, 
Vicar- Apostolic  of  Ava  and  Pegu,  who  declares,  "It  is 
not  a  little  surprising  that  we  should  have  to  acknow 
ledge  the  fact  that  the  voyages  of  two  Chinese  tra 
vellers,  undertaken  in  the  fifth  and  seventh  centuries 
of  our  era,  have  done  more  to  elucidate  the  history 
and  geography  of  Buddhism  in  India  than  all  that  has 
hitherto  been  found  in  the  Sanscrit  and  Pali  books 
of  India  and  the  neighbouring  countries."  This  is 
very  strong  testimony  as  to  the  general  accuracy  of 
observation  and  truthfulness  of  the  Chinese  Buddhist 
travelling  monks,  two  of  whom  were  probably  contem 
porary  with  Hoei-shin,  and  these  he  may  have  seen  at 
the  court  of  the  Empress  Dowager  Tai-Hau  of  the 
Great  Wei  dynasty,  who  favoured  such  mission 
aries,  sending  them  afar  to  advance  the  faith.  It 
is  far  from  unlikely  that  men  so  celebrated  for  the 
extent  of  their  travels,  and  occupied  with  precisely  the 
same  pursuits,  should  have  met  and  exchanged  their 
experiences.  For  Hoei-seng  and  Song-yun,  who 
travelled  only  nineteen  years  after  Hoei-shin,  were, 
as  we  know,  celebrated  in  their  time,  their  journal 
having  been  published  by  command  of  an  Empress. 
Therefore  it  is  improbable  that  Hoei-shin  was  less  cele 
brated  in  his  time  at  a  court  and  in  a  country  where 
travellers  and  books  of  travel  were,  as  we  have  seen, 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       93 

duly  appreciated,  since  an  Emperor  deigned  to  write 
the  introduction  with  his  own  Imperial  hand  to  the 
book  of  one  Buddhist  missionary  monk,  and  then  had 
it  published  in  the  most  magnificent  manner  at  his  own 
expense.  We  may  well  call  a.  work  magnificent,  the 
fame  of  which  has  endured  for  fourteen  hundred  years, 
and  must  the  more  deeply  regret  its  wanton  destruction 
by  ignorant  and  reckless  soldiers. 

The  credibility  or  importance  of  one  of  this  class  of 
books  is  naturally  enough  upheld  by  that  of  the  rest, 
and  the  narrative  of  Hoei-shin,  viewed  in  this  light, 
acquires  additional  probability.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  Professor  Neumann  should  have  omitted  as  un 
important,  or  as  detrimental  to  the  authenticity  of  his 
text,  that  "  fabulous  matter  "  which,  he  assumes,  is 
not  worth  translating.  Absurd  fables  occur  abundantly 
in  the  travels  of  Hoei-shin's  contemporaries,  as  in  those 
of  Herodotus  ;  but  being  merely  given  as  reports,  their 
very  existence  may  serve  to  establish  an  identity  •  of 
style  with  that  of  writers  whom  no  one  at  the  present 
day  regards  as  untruthful.  The  study  of  these  Bud 
dhist  travels  will  convince  the  reader  that  their  authors 
were  singularly  alike  in  their  caste  of  mind  and  manner 
of  observation,  but  unquestionably  honest.  They  are  as 
simple  as  Saxon  monks,  whom  they  greatly  resemble  : 
all  their  thoughts  and  phrases  are  distinct  units. 

It  may  be  observed  that  Colonel  Kennon's  last  re 
mark  in  his  letter  is  in  reference  to  the  "  resemblance 
of  immense  numbers  of  North  American  Indians  to  the 


94  LETTER  FROM  COL.  B.  KENNON  ON 

so-called  Mongolian  tribes."  This  resemblance  lias 
often  been  remarked  by  Americans.  I  was  recently 
indebted  to  the  kindness  of  the  Hon.  Charles  D. 
Poston,  late  Commissioner  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Asia,  for  a  work  written  by  him  entitled, 
"  The  Parsees,"  which  includes  observations  in  India, 
Japan,  and  China.  In  this  book,  the  only  comparison 
made  as  to  similarity  of  races  is  the  following,  in  an 
incident  which  took  place  "  beyond  the  Great  Wall :  "• 

"  A  Mongolian  came  riding  up  on  a  little  black 
pony,  followed  by  a  servant  on  a  camel,  rocking  like  a 
windmill.  He  stopped  a  moment  to  exchange  panto 
mimic  salutations.  He  was  full  of  electricity,  and  alive 
with  motion  ;  the  blood  was  warm  in  his  veins,  and  the 
fire  was  bright  in  his  eye.  I  could  have  sworn  that  he 
was  an  Apache  ;  every  action,  motion,  and  look  re 
minded  me  of  my  old  enemies  and  neighbours  in  Ari 
zona.  They  are  the  true  descendants  of  the  nomadic 
Tartars  of  Asia,  and  preserve  every  instinct  of  the  race. 
He  shook  hands  friendlily  but  timidly,  keeping  all  the 
time  in  motion  like  an  Apache." 

I  have  italicised  these  last  words,  since  they  indicate 
great  familiarity  with  the  Apaches,  as  well  as  the  shrewd 
observation  which  is  characteristic  of  the  writer.  All 
Indians  do  not  closely  approach  this  type,  nor  do  all 
Tartars.  But  it  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  among  the 
"  Horse- Indians "  great  numbers  have  a  peculiarly 
Mongolian  expression,  often  approaching  to  identity,  as 
if  there  were  a  common  blood,  which,  when  developed 


NAVIGATION  OF  NORTH  PACIFIC  OCEAN.       95 

in  nomadic  life  on  Asiatic  steppes  and  Western  Ameri 
can  prairies,  had  produced  cognate  results.  This  resem 
blance  is  so  strong,  that  most  readers  will  be  tempted 
to  inquire  if  there  are  any  signs  of  philological  affinity 
connecting  these  races.  What  I  have  been  able  to 
ascertain,  which  is  also  due  to  the  researches  of  one 
whom  I  have  known  personally  for  many  years,  will  be 
found  in  the  following  chapter. 


AMERICAN    ANTIQUITIES, 


WITH    THEIR 


RELATIONS    TO    THE    OLD    WORLD. 


THE  DAKOTA  LANGUAGE  AND  THE  URAL-ALTAIC 
TONGUES— THE  MOUND-BUILDERS— 
IMAGES  OF  BUDDHA. 


CHAPTER  X. 

AFFINITIES  OF  AMERICAN  AND  ASIATIC  LANGUAGES. 

A  VAST  amount  of  research  and  ingenuity  has  been 
employed  in  establishing  resemblances  between  the 
archaeological  remains  of  Mexico  and  those  of  Central 
America- and  Peru,  and  the  temptation  to  transfer  many 
of  the  assumed  proofs  or  arguments  to  these  pages  is 
naturally  very  great.  I  have,  however,  resisted  it, 
partly  because  this  material  is  accessible  to  all  who 
are  interested  in  the  subject  of  the  possible  origin 
of  the  American  races,  and  partly  because  so  much 
of  it  is  unscientific  and  fanciful,  that  a  degree  of  dis 
credit  rests  upon  it.  Many  remarkable  facts  exist ; 
but  in  truth,  they  exist  thus  far,  like  the  record  of 
Hoei-shin,  rather  as  an  incentive  to  further  research 
than  as  clearly-defined  historical  monuments.  A 
remark  recently  made  by  Mr  Hyde  Clarke,  when 
officiating  as  chairman  at  a  meeting  of  the  Society  of 
Arts,1  has,  however,  suggested  to  me  some  investigations 
by  a  learned  German,  well  known  to  me  personally, 
which  I  shall  not  scruple  to  reproduce,  as  they  are 

1  April  15,  1874.  Vide  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  April  17, 1874.  It 
was  in  commenting  on  a  lecture  on  the  "  Symbolism  of  Oriental  Ornament," 
delivered  by  William  Simson,  F.R.G.S.,  that  the  remark  in  question  was 
made. 


ioo       AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,    WITH  THEIR 

appropriate  to  the  subject  of  an  affinity  between  Old 
America  and  Asia.  On  this  occasion  Mr  Clarke  said 
that  the*"  subject  was  so  vast,  it  was  impossible  to  deal 
thoroughly 'with  it  ;  but  he  might  mention,  that  only 
recently  some  of  the  monuments  in  the  Indo-Chinese 
Peninsula — in  Cambodia  and  Pegu — had  been  found  by 
himself  to  greatly  resemble  in  form  those  of  Mexico 
and  South  America ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  strong 
affinities  were  discovered  between  the  languages.  He 
had  just  discovered,  also,  that  there  was  affinity  between 
the  Akkad  form  of  the  earliest  cuneiform  inscriptions 
(which  remained  even  now  almost  without  interpretation) 
and  the  Aymara,  in  Peru,  thus  establishing  one  historic 
chain  from  (  Babylon  to  the  New  World.'1  New  facts 
were  constantly  coming  forward,  and  they  all  tended  to 
illustrate  the  same  interesting  and  important  doctrine 
— the  unity  which  there  had  always  been  in  the  human 
race,  and  the  way  in  which  progress  had  been  carried 
onwards  from  one  generation  to  another,  for  the  build 
ing  up  of  a  system  of  civilisation  which,  when  properly 
applied,  would  contribute  to  the  benefit  of  all." 

It  was  the  reference  by  Mr  Clarke  to  the  resemblance 
between  American  and  Asiatic  languages  which  reminded 
me  of  some  comments  by  the  distinguished  linguist 
F.  L.  0.  Koehrig,  who,  as  the  discoverer  of  a  group  of 

1  As  I  have  not  examined  this  subject,  I  know  nothing  of  these  affinities. 
I  quote  Mr  Clarke's  remarks  on  account  of  their  general  bearing  on  Ameri 
can  languages,  and  as  an  introduction  to  another  writer.  The  existence  of 
ancient  inscriptions  in  Peru  is,  I  believe,  as  yet  doubtful. 


RELATIONS  TO  THE  OLD   WORLD.  101 

new  tongues  in  Central  Asia,  and  as  the  author  of  an 
"  Essay  on  Languages/'  to  which  was  awarded  the  prize 
of  the  French  Institute,  is  entitled  to  respect,  the  more 
so  as  his  views  are  quite  free  from  anything  visionary 
or  fanciful.  In  a  monograph  "  On  the  Language  of  the 
Dakota  or  Sioux  Indians,"  published  in  1872  at  Wash 
ington,  "from  the  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu 
tion,"  he  speaks  as  follows  : — 

"  So  far  as  we  know,  the  Dakota  language,  with  several 
cognate  tongues,  constitutes  a  separate  class  or  family  among 
American-Indian  languages.  But  the  question  at  present  is, 
Whence  does  the  Dakota,  with  its  related  American  tongues, 
come  ?  From  what  trunk  or  parent  stock  is  it  derived  ?  Ethno 
logists  are  wont  to  point  us  to  Asia  as  the  most  probable  source 
of  the  prehistorical  immigration  from  the  Old  World.  '  Hence,' 
they  say,  '  many,  if  not  all,  of  our  Indians  must  have  come  from 
Eastern  or  Middle  Asia ;  and  in  considering  their  respective 
tongues,  one  must  still  find  somewhere  in  that  region  some 
cognate,  though  perhaps  very  remotely-related,  set  of  languages, 
however  much  the  affinity  existing  between  the  Indian  tongues 
and  these  may  have  gradually  become  obscured,  and  in  how 
many  instances  soever,  through  a  succession  of  ages,  the  old 
family  features  may  have  been  impaired.  But  they  further 
allow,  of  course,  that  these  changes  may  have  taken  place  to 
such  an  extent  that  this  affinity  cannot  be  easily  recognised,  and 
may  be  much,  even  altogether,  obliterated. 

"When  we  consider  the  languages  of  the  great  Asiatic  Con 
tinent,  of  its  upper  and  eastern  portions  more  particularly,  with 
a  view  of  discovering  any  remaining  trace,  however  faint,  of 
analogy  with,  or  similarity  to,  the  Dakota  tongue,  what  do  we 
find  ?  Very  little ;  and  the  only  group  of  Asiatic  languages  in 
which  we  could  possibly  fancy  we  perceived  any  kind  of  dim 
and  vague  resemblance,  an  occasional  analogy,  or  other  perhaps 


102        AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,    WITH  THEIR 


merely  casual  coincidence  with  the  Sioux  or  Dakota  tongue, 
would  probably  be  the  so-called  ( Ural-Altaic'  family.  This 
group  embraces  a  very  wide  range,  and  is  found  scattered  in 
manifold  ramifications  through  parts  of  Eastern,  Northern,  and 
Middle  Asia,  extending  in  some  of  its  more  remote  branches 
even  to  the  heart  of  Europe,  where  the  Hungarian  and  the 
numerous  tongues  of  the  far-spread  Finnish  tribes  offer  still  the 
same  characteristics,  and  an  unmistakable  impress  of  the  old 
Ural-Altaic  relationship. 

"  In  the  following  pages  we  shall  present  some  isolated 
glimpses  of  such  resemblances,  analogies,  &c.,  with  the  Sioux 
language  as  strike  us,  though  we  need  not  repeat  that  no  con 
clusions  whatever  can  be  drawn  from  them  regarding  any  affinity, 
ever  so  remote,  between  the  Ural-Altaic  languages  and  the  Da 
kota  tongue.  This  much,  however,  may  perhaps  be  admitted 
from  what  we  have  to  say,  that  at  least  an  Asiatic  origin  of  the 
Sioux  or  Dakota  nation  and  their  language  may  not  be  altogether 
an  impossibility. 

"  In  the  first  place,  we  find  that  as  in  those  Ural-Altaic  lan 
guages,  so  in  a  like  manner  in  the  Sioux  or  Dakota  tongue,  there 
exists  that  remarkable  syntactical  structure  of  sentences  which 
we  might  call  a  constant  inversion  of  the  mode  and  order  in 
which  ive  are  accustomed  to  think.  Thus,  more  or  less,  the 
people  who  speak  those  languages  would  begin  sentences  or 
periods  where  we  end  ours,  so  that  our  thoughts  would  really 
appear  in  their  minds  as  inverted. 

"  Those  Asiatic  languages  have,  moreover,  no  prepositions, 
but  only  Compositions.  So,  likewise,  has  the  Dakota  tongue. 

"  The  polysynthetic  arrangement  which  prevails  throughout 
the  majority  of  the  American -Indian  languages  is  less  prominent, 
and  decidedly  less  intricate,  in  the  Dakota  tongue  than  in  those 
of  the  other  tribes  of  this  continent.  But  it  may  be  safely 
asserted  that  the  above-mentioned  languages  of  Asia  also  con 
tain,  at  least,  a  similar  polysynthetic  tendency,  though  merely 
in  an  incipient  state,  a  rudimental  or  partially-developed  form. 


RELATIONS  TO  THE  OLD   WORLD.  103 

Thus,  for  instance,  all  the  various  modifications  which  the  fun 
damental  meaning  of  a  verb  has  to  undergo,  such  as  passive 
condition,  causation,  reflexive  action,  mutuality,  and  the  like, 
are  embodied  in  the  verb  itself  by  means  of  interposition,  or  a 
sort  of  intercalation  of  certain  characteristic  syllables  between 
the  root  and  the  grammatical  endings  of  such  a  verb,  whereby  a 
long-continued  and  united  series,  or  catenation,  is  often  obtained, 
forming,  apparently,  one  huge  word.  However,  to  elucidate  this 
further  here  would  evidently  lead  us  too  far  away  from  our  pre 
sent  subject  and  purpose.  We  only  add  that  postpositions, 
pronouns,  as  well  as  the  interrogative  particle,  &c.,  are  also 
commonly  blended  into  one  with  the  nouns,  by  being  inserted 
one  after  the  other,  where  several  such  expressions  occur  in  the 
manner  alluded  to,  the  whole  being  closed  by  the  grammatical 
terminations,  so  as  often  to  form  words  of  considerable  length.1 
May  we  not  feel  authorised  to  infer  from  this  some  sort  of 
approach,  in  however  feeble  a  degree,  of  those  Asiatic  languages 
— through  this  principle  of  catenation — to  the  general  polysyn- 
thetic  system  of  the  American  tongues  ? 

"  We  now  proceed  to  a  singular  phenomenon,  which  we  should 
like  to  describe  technically,  as  a  sort  of  reduplicatio  intensitiva. 
It  exists  in  the  Mongolian  and  Turco-Tartar  branches  of  the 
Ural-Altaic  group,  and  some  vestiges  of  it  we  found,  to  our 
great  surprise,  also  in  the  language  of  our  Sioux  Indians.2 

"  This  reduplication  is,  in  the  above-mentioned  Asiatic  lan 
guages,  applied  particularly  to  adjectives  denoting  colour  and 
external  qualities,  and  it  is  just  the  same  in  the  Dakota  lan 
guage.  It  consists  in  prefixing  to  any  given  word  its  first 
syllable  in  the  shape  of  a  reduplication,  this  syllable  thus  occur 
ring  twice — often  adding  to  it  (as  the  case  may  be)  a  p.  &c. 

"  The  object — at  least  in  the  Asiatic  languages  alluded  to- — 

1  Such  intercalations  are,  in  a  measure,  almost  analogous  to  the  usual 
insertion  of  the  many  incidental  clauses  in  long  Latin  or  German  sen 
tences,  if  we  are  allowed  that  comparison. 

2  This  reduplicatio  intensitiva  is  not  uncommon  iu  Hindustani. — C.  G.  L. 


104       AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,   WITH  THEIR 

is  to  express  thereby  in  many  cases  a  higher  degree  or  increase 
of  the  quality.  An  example  or  two  will  make  it  clear.  Thus 
we  have,  for  instance,  in  Mongolian,  Mara,  which  means  black ; 
and  KHAp-Mara,  with  the  meaning  of  very  black,  entirely  black  ; 
tsayan,  white,  TSAp-tsagan,  entirely  white,  &c. ;  and  in  the  Turkish 
and  the  so-called  Tartar  (Tatar)  dialects  of  Asiatic  Russia,  kara, 
black,  and  KA.p-kara,  very  black;  sary,  yellow,  and  SAp-sary, 
entirely  yellow,  &c. 

"  Now  in  Dakota  we  find  sapa,  black,  and  with  the  reduplica 
tion  sAp-sopa.  The  reduplication  here  is,  indeed,  a  reduplication 
of  the  syllable  sa,  and  not  of  sap,  the  word  being  a-a-pa,  and  not 
sap-a.  The  p  in  SA.p-sapa  is  inserted  after  the  reduplication  of 
the  first  syllable,  just  as  we  have  seen  in  the  above,  kara  and 
KAp-kara,  &c. 

"  In  the  Ural-Altaic  languages  m  also  is  sometimes  inserted 
after  the  first  syllable  ;  for  instance,  in  the  Turkish  leyaz,  white, 
and  VEmrbeyaz,  very  white,  &c.  If  we  find,  however,  similar 
instances  in  the  Dakota  language,  such  as  6epa,  which  means 
fleshy  (one  of  the  external  qualities  to  which  this  rule  applies), 
and  C"EM  tepa,  <fcc.,  we  must  consider  that  the  letter  m  is  in  such 
cases  merely  a  contraction,  and  replaces,  moreover,  another  labial 
letter  (p)  followed  by  a  vowel,  particularly  a.  Thus,  for  in 
stance,  6om  is  a  contraction  for  6opa,  gam  for  gapa,  ham  for 
hapa,  skem  for  skepa,  om  for  opa,  torn  for  topa,  &c.  So  is  6em, 
in  our  example,  only  an  abridged  form  of  cepa  ;  hence  m  stands 
here  for  p  or  pa,  and  belongs  essentially  to  the  word  itself,  while 
in  those  Asiatic  languages  the  m  is  added  to  the  reduplication  of 
the  first  syllable,  like  the  KAp  in  p-kara,  &c.  We  have  there 
fore  to  be  very  careful  in  our  conclusions. 

"  The  simple  doubling  of  the  first  syllable  is  also  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  Dakota ;  for  instance,  yi,  brown,  and  gigi  (same 
meaning);  Sni,  cold,  and  snisni;  ko,  quick,  and  koko,  <fec. 

"  There  are  also  some  very  interesting  examples  to  be  found 
in  the  Dakota  language  which  strikingly  remind  us  of  a  remark 
able  peculiarity  frequently  met  with  in  the  Asiatic  languages 


RELATIONS  TO  THE  OLD   WORLD.  105 

above   adverted  to.     It  consists  in  the  antagonism  in  form,  as 
well  as  in  meaning,  of  certain  words,  according  to  the  nature  of 
their  vowels ';  so  that  when  such  words  contain  what  we  may  call 
the   strong,  full,  or  hard  vowels — viz.,   a,  o,  or  u  (in  the  Con 
tinental  pronunciation) — they  generally  denote  strength,  the  male 
sex,   affirmation,  distance,  &c.  ;  while  the  same  words  with  the 
weak   or  soft  vowels,  e,  i,  the  consonantal  skeleton,  frame,  or  , 
groundwork  of  the  word  remaining  the  same  —  express  weak-  i 
ness,  the  female  sex,  negation,  proximity,  and  a  whole  series  of 
corresponding  ideas. 

"  A  few  examples  will  demonstrate  this.  Thus,  for  instance, 
the  idea  of  father  is  expressed  in  Mantchoo  (one  of  the  Ural- 
Altaic  languages)  by  ama,  while  mother  is  erne.  This  gives,  no 
doubt,  but  a  very  incomplete  idea  of  that  peculiarity,  but  it  will 
perhaps  be  sufficient  to  explain  in  a  measure  what  we  found 
analogous  in  the  Dakota  language.  Instances  of  the  kind  are 
certainly  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  latter,  and  we  will  content 
ourselves  with  giving  here  only  a  very  few  examples,  in  which  the 
above  difference  of  signification  is  seen  to  exist,  though  the 
significance  of  the  respective  vowels  seems  to  be  just  the  reverse, 
which  would  in  nowise  invalidate  the  truth  of  the  preceding 
statement,  since  the  same  inconsistent  alteration  or  anomaly 
frequently  takes  place  also  in  the  family  of  Ural-Altaic  languages. 

"  Thus  we  find  in  the  Dakota  or  Sioux  language,  hEpa^j,  second 
son  of  a  family,  and  hApa?j,  second  daughter  of  a  family  ;  c"i»j, 
elder  brother;  c"u?j,  elder  sister ;  ci^ksi,  son  ;  cu?/ksi,  daughter,  &c. 
Also,  the  demonstratives  KOTJ,  that,  and  KI?J,  this,  the  (the  defi 
nite  articles),  seem  to  come,  in  some  respects,  under  this  head. 

"  To  investigate  the  grammatical  structure  of  languages  from  a 
comparative  point  of  view,  is,  however,  but  one  part  of  the  work 
of  the  philologist ;  the  other  equally  essential  part  consists  in  the 
study  of  the  words  themselves,  the  very  material  of  which  lan 
guages  are  made.  We  do  not  as  yet  intend  to  touch  on  the 
question  of  Dakota  words  and  their  possible  affinities,  but  reserve 
all  that  pertains  to  comparative  etymology  for  some  other  time 


106       AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,    WITH  THEIR 

The  identity  of  words  in  different  languages,  or  simply  their 
affinity,  may  be  either  immediately  recognised,  or  rendered  evi 
dent  by  a  regular  process  of  philological  reasoning,  especially 
when  such  words  appear,  as  it  were,  disguised,  in  consequence  of 
certain  alterations,  due  to  time  and  to  various  vicissitudes,  whereby 
either  the  original  vowels  or  the  consonants,  or  both,  have  be- 
^corne  changed.  Then,  also,  it  frequently  happens  that  one  and 
the  same  word,  when  compared  in  cognate  languages,  may  ap 
pear  as  different  parts  of  speech,  so  that  in  one  of  them  it  may 
exist  as  a  noun,  and  in  another  only  as  a  verb,  &c.  Moreover, 
the  same  word  may  have  become  gradually  modified  in  its 
original  meaning,  so  that  it  denotes,  for  instance,  in  one  of  the 
cognate  languages,  the  genus,  and  in  another,  merely  the  species 
of  the  same  thing  or  idea.  Or  it  may  also  happen  that  when 
several  synonymous  expressions  originally  existed  in  what  we 
may  call  a  mother  language,  they  have  become  so  scattered  in 
their  descent,  that  only  one  of  these  words  is  found  in  a  cer 
tain  one  of  the  derived  languages,  while  others  again  belong  to 
other  cognate  tongues,  or  even  their  dialects,  exclusively. 

"  The  foregoing  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  frequent  failures 
in  establishing  the  relationship  of  certain  languages  in  regard  to 
the  affinity  of  all  their  words.  On  this  occasion  it  will  be  enough 
to  mention  in  passing,  as  it  were,  one  or  two  of  the  most 
frequently-used  words,  such  as  the  names  of  father  and  mother. 
In  regard  to  these  familiar  expressions,  we  again  find  a  surprising 
coincidence  between  the  tongues  of  Upper  Asia — or,  more  ex 
tensively  viewed,  the  Ural-Altaic  or  Tartar-Finnish  stock  of 
languages — and  the  Dakota. 

"Father  is  in  Dakota  ate;  in  Turco-Tartar,  ata ;  Mongolian 
and  its  branches,  etsti,  etsige  ;  in  the  Finnish  languages  we  meet 
with  the  forms  attje,  aid,  &c. — they  all  having  at  =  et  as  their 
radical  syllable.1  Now  as  to  mother,  it  is  in  the  Dakota 


1  This  also  exists  in  Old  German,  atti  or  c.tti  being  still  used  in  Sualda 
for  father.— C.  G.  L. 


RELATIONS  TO   THE  OLD   WORLD.  107 

language  ma  ;  and  in  the  Asiatic  tongues  just  mentioned  it  is 
ana,  aniya,  ine,  eniye,  &c. 

"  Again,  we  find  in  the  Dakota  or  Sioux  language  tartin,  which 
means  to  appear,  to  be  visible,  manifest,  distinct,  clear.  Now 
we  have  also  in  all  the  Tartar  dialects  tan,  tang,  which  means 
first  light ;  hence  dawn  of  the  morning.1  From  it  is  derived 
tani,  which  is  the  stem  or  radical  part  of  verbs,  meaning  to 
render  manifest,  to  make  known,  to  know  ;  it  also  appears  in 
the  old  Tartar  verb  stems,  tang-(la)  meaning  to  understand ; 
and  in  its  mutilated  modern  (and  Western)  form,  any- (la],  with 
out  the  initial  t,  which  has  the  same  signification.  We  may 
mention  still  mama,  which,  in  Dakota,  denotes  the  female  breast. 
We  might  compare  it  with  the  Tartar  meme,  which  has  the  same 
meaning,  if  we  had  not  also  in  almost  all  European  languages 
the  word  mamma  (mama)  with  the  wry  same  fundamental 
signification,  the  children  of  very  many  ditferent  nations  calling 
their  mothers  instinctively,  as  it  were,  by  that  name,  mamma, 
mama.* 

"  We  may  also  assert  that  even  in  the  foundation  of  words 
we  find  now  and  then  some  slight  analogy  between  certain 
characteristic  endings  in  the  languages  of  Upper  Asia  and  the 
Dakota  tongue.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  termination  for  the 
nomen  agens,  which  in  the  Dakota  language  is  sa,  is  in 
Tartar  tsi,  si,  and  dchi ;  Mongolian,  tchi,  &c.  We  also  find  in 
Dakota  the  postposition  ta  (a  constituent  part  of  ekto,  in,  at), 
which  is  a  locative  particle,  and  corresponds  in  form  to  the 
postpositions  ta  and  da,  and  their  several  varieties  and  modifica 
tions  in  the  greater  part  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family  of  languages. 

1  Din  (day)  Hindu  ;    Saxon,  dagian  ;  English,  dawn. — C.  G.  L. 

2  e.g.,  Mamma,  a  breast  or  pap,  Latin,  having  also  the  meaning  of  "a 
child's  word  for  mother."     Ma,  or  mamma,  occurs  in  seven  African  lan 
guages  ;  ma  or  amma  in  nine  non- Aryan  languages  of  Europe  and  Asia  ; 
ama  once  in  North  Australia  ;  hammali  in   Lewis  Murray  Island ;  mam 
ma  once  in  Australia  ;  and  amama  among  the  Hudson's  Bay  Esquimaux. 
Vide  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  "  Origin  of  Civilisation." — C.  G.  L. 


io8       AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,   WITH  THEIR 

The  same  remark  applies  in  a  measure  to  the  Dakota  postposi 
tion  e,  which  means  to,  toward,  &c.  By  means  of  such  post 
positions  the  declension  of  nouns  is  effected  in  the  Ural-Altaic 
languages.  The  Dakota  cases  of  declension,  if  we  can  use  this 
term,  amount  likewise  to  a  very  rude  sort  of  agglutination,  or 
rather  simple  adding  of  the  postpositions  to  the  nouns.1  There 
can  be  here  no  question  of  a  real  inflection  or  declension,  since 
there  is  throughout  only  a  kind  of  loose  adhesion,  and  nowhere 
what  we  might  call  a  true  cohesion.  The  postpositions  are  in  the 
written  language  added  to  the  nouns,  without  being  conjoined  to 
them  in  writing  (except  the  plural  ending  pi),  as  is  also  the  case 
in  the  Mongolian  language,  the  Turco-Tartar  dialects,  and  other 
tongues  of  this  class. 

"In  pointing  out  these  various  resemblances  of  the  Sioux 
language  to  Asiatic  tongues  we  in  nowise  mean  to  say  that  we 
are  inclined  to  believe  in  any  affinity  or  remote  relationship 
among  them.  At  this  early  stage  of  our  researches  it  would  be 
wholly  preposterous  to  make  any  assertions  as  to  the  question 
of  affinity,  &c.  All  that  we  intended  to  do  was  simply  to  bring 
forward  a  few  facts,  from  which,  if  they  should  be  further  cor 
roborated  by  a  more  frequent  recurrence  of  the  phenomena  here 
touched  upon,  the  reader  might  perhaps  draw  his  own  con 
clusions,  at  least  so  far  as  a  very  remote  Asiatic  origin  of  the 
Dakota  language  is  concerned.  Further  investigations  in  the 
same  direction  might  possibly  lead  to  more  satisfactory  results.'7 

I  am  confident  that  few  readers  will  object  to  the 
length  of  this  citation,  or  to  its  character,  since  it  cer 
tainly  illustrates  forcibly,  in  several  respects,  the  present 
condition  of  all  our  conjectures,  or  knowledge,  if  I  may 
so  call  it,  of  the  early  relations  between  America  and 
Asia.  There  is  enough  in  it,  as  in  the  narrative  of 

1  Declension  by  means  of  postpositions  also  occurs  in  the  Gipsy  or  Korn- 
uiauy  language. —  C.  G.  L. 


RELATIONS  TO  THE  OLD   WORLD.  109 

Hoei-shin,  to  amply  warrant  research,  and  to  encourage 
labour  in  the  direction  pointed  out ;  but  it  would  be  in 
the  highest  degree  rash  and  arrogant  to  assume,  on  no 
better  grounds  than  the  two  present,  that  America  was 
settled  by  the  Mongolian  race.  Indeed,  I  cannot  too 
warmly  commend  Mr  Roehrig's  extreme  caution  in  ad 
vancing  his  observations.  Nevertheless,  I  think  that 
they  indicate  a  most  decided  possibility  of  an  Eastern 
origin ;  and  with  regard  to  Hoei-shin,  I  believe  there  is 
good  ground  for  probability.  And  in  all  such  cases, 
one  discovery  strengthens  the  other. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  MOUND-BUILDERS  AND  MEXICANS. 

THERE  is  as  yet  great  confusion  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
different  races  of  ancient  America.  For,  admitting  thai, 
the  Sioux  language,  or  any  North  American  Indian  lan 
guage,  presents  traces  of  Asiatic  derivation,  this  would 
simply  prove  that  the  Sioux  came  from  Asia.  But  if 
would  not  explain  the  origin  of  the  Aztec  race,  nor 
would  it  cast  the  least  light  on  the  nature  of  the  Mound- 
Builders,  or  tell  us  who  or  what  the  people  were  whom 
Hoei-shin  found,  possibly  in  Mexico.  With  regard  to 
these  early  races,  some  observations  by  an  American 
writer  may  not  be  deemed  out  of  place  r1 — 

"  Centuries  before  the  Red  Indian  appeared  on  the  Northern 
Continent,  a  race  (perhaps  of  a  kindred  stock)  of  higher  civilisa 
tion  dwelt  on  the  western  prairies.  The  '  Mound-Builders/  as 
they  are  appropriately  called,  left  their  remarkable  lines  of  earth 
works  from  the  Lower  Mississippi  to  the  Ohio.  These  structures, 
on  which  successive  forests  of  various  growths  have  flourished 
and  died,  still  survive,  and  surprise  the  stranger  by  their  intri 
cacy,  skill,  and  the  evidences  of  vast  labour  which  they  display. 

1  Ne\v  York  Times. 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES.  1 1 1 

Some  are  temples,  some  burial-places,  some  are  fortifications, 
some  are  gardens,  some  are  representations  on  a  gigantic  scale  of 
the  forms  of  animals  and  birds,  for  what  purpose  it  is  difficult  to 
explain.  Among  these  structures  are  mounds  in  the  form  of 
truncated  pyramids,  which  seem  to  be  the  first  suggestions  of 
the  pyramidal  and  terraced  structures  in  Central  America  and 
Mexico,  which,  perhaps,  formed  the  highest  material  works  of 
this  mysterious  race.  They  must  have  conducted  an  inland 
commerce  over  a  vast  territory,  and  obtained  or  purchased  mica 
from  the  North  Carolina  mountains,  copper  from  Lake  Superior, 
obsidian  from  Mexico,  specular  iron  from  Missouri,  and  salt  from 
Michigan — articles  which  the  Red  Indians  never  possessed,  except 
by  accident.  They  understood  a  rude  agriculture,  and  the  arts 
of  weaving  and  of  moulding  pottery  and  figures  of  animals. 
They  even  at  times  melted  copper,  and  used  it  in  instruments, 
though  they  never  seem  to  have  done  this  with  iron.  The  forms 
of  their  skulls,  and  the  evidences  from  their  arts,  show  a  milder 
and  more  cultivated  race  than  any  the  whites  have  ever  known 
north  of  Central  America.  Who  they  were,  whence  they  came, 
of  what  blood  or  stock,  is  hidden  in  the  mists  of  a  far  antiquity. 
They  spread  their  busy  life,  and  left  their  traces  over  the  whole 
Central  West,  perhaps  existing  there  as  long  as  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race  has  existed,  and  then  they  perished — their  only  history 
being  written  on  the  ground,  a  record  obliterated  by  the  growth 
of  forests  for  uncounted  centuries,  but  now  partly  deciphered  by 
a  people  of  whom  they  never  dreamt.  Before  even  the  Mound- 
Builders,  lived  a  lower  and  more  primeval  race,  the  companions, 
in  all  probability,  of  the  fossil  animals,  a  race  whose  skulls  are 
just  being  discovered  near  Chicago,  and  whose  contemporaries 
have  left  their  stone  implements  beneath  the  volcanic  deposits  of 
the  Sierras.  This  prehistoric  and  primeval  man  belonged  to 
tribes  as  low  and  degraded  as  the  present  Australians ;  indeed, 
of  a  type  more  nearly  approaching  the  simian  than  any  hitherto 
discovered  (with  the  single  exception  of  that  of  the  * Neander 
thal' skull.)" 


ii2       AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,    WITH  THEIR 

The  extinction  of  such  a  vast  and  widely-spread  race 
as  was  that  of  the  Mound-Builders,  in  all  probability  by 
the  fierce  and  powerful  Eed  Indian,  indicates  an  im 
mense  extent  of  time.  For  as  by  no  possibility  could 
any  mere  migrations  from  Asia  have  sufficed  to  sweep 
them  away,  it  follows  that  their  exterminators  must 
have  long  been  growing  in  numbers  before  they  could 
effectually  put  an  end  to  them.  The  writer  from  whom 
I  have  quoted  remarks,  probably  with  truth,  that  the 
Mound-Builders  were  a  milder  and  gentler  race  than 
their  successors,  and  far  more  intellectual,  as  is  shown 
by  their  skulls.  The  thoroughness  with  which  this 
numerous  and  widely-spread  people  were  extermin 
ated,  and  the  fact  that  no  tradition  of  them  has  ever 
been  found  among  the  Red  Indians,  indicate  a  very 
remote  age  as  the  period  of  their  disappearance.  And 
yet  it  is  quite  certain  that  if,  as  Hoei-shin  asserts,  the 
mild  and  highly-refined  religion  of  Buddha  ever  took 
root  among  early  Americans,  it  must  have  been  with  such 
people  as  the  Mound-Builders  who  practised  some  vast 
and  dreamy  Nature-worship,  which  would  render  them 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  teachings  of  the  monks. 
For  that  they  did  practise  some  such  religion  would 
appear  from  this,  that  since  works  like  theirs  were 
in  every  other  part  of  the  world  invariably  erected 
under  the  influence  of  belief,  it  is  very  unlikely  that 
they  formed  structures  many  miles  in  length,  employ 
ing  probably  the  labour  of  millions,  for  mere  amusement. 
It  must  have  been  either  among  such  a  race,  or  by 


RELATIONS  TO   THE  OLD   WORLD.  113 

highly- civilised  Aztecs,  that  the  monks  were  welcomed. 
But  it  is  most  unlikely  that  Buddhism  ever  made  any 
mark  upon  the  Aztec  monarchy  itself,  or  upon  the 
fierce  Tolteks.  Had  it  done  so,  we  should  find  its 
traces -to  this  day.  There  is  a  wonderful  leaven  in 
Buddhism ;  it  penetrates  deeply  wherever  it  goes  ;  it 
changes  strong  and  energetic  faiths  ;  it  even  blended 
intimately  with  the  vigorous  Greek  element  in  Northern 
India. 

Meanwhile  antiquarians  are  constantly  collecting 
new  facts,  which  indicate  a  mysterious  knowledge 
by  the  Mexicans  of  many  phenomena  of  the  so-called 
Old  World.  Even  while  writing,  I  learn  that  Senor 
Jose  Ostiz  de  Tapia  has  now  in  New  York  a  museum 
of  Mexican  antiquities,  which  is  said  to  be  by  far 
the  most  important  ever  yet  made.  This  gentleman, 
who  has  been  for  many  years  investigating  the  arch 
aeology  of  Central  America,  has  collected  many  thou 
sand  objects.  One  of  these  is  a  remarkable  stone 
image,  said,  according  to  Indian  tradition,  to  be  that  of 
Cucumaz,  the  God  of  the  Air.  "It  is  cut  from  a 
block  of  chocolate-coloured  porphyry,  is  about  two  feet 
high,  and  about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  shape 
is  that  of  a  feathered  serpent  in  a  solid  coil,  from  whose 
widely-distended  mouth  the  head  of  a  woman  emerges, 
her  arms  and  legs  appearing  between  the  coils.  This 
is  supposed  to  represent  the  creation  of  woman.  The 
type  of  her  face  bears  no  likeness  to  that  of  any 
race  which  ever  lived  in  Mexico,  but  much  resembles 

H 


U4      AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,    WITH  THEIR 

the  sculptured  faces  found  in  Egyptian  ruins.  Another 
singular  curiosity,  that  also  appears  to  connect  the  New 
with  the  Old  World  in  prehistoric  times,  is  an  image 
cut  from  a  black  stone  in  the  likeness  of  a  negro.  Not 
only  are  the  features  of  the  true  Ethiopian  type,  but 
the  shape  of  the  head  and  the  conformation  of  the 
figure.  Both  these  small  statues  are  admirably  carved 
and  finished,  although  their  worshippers  were  certainly 
ignorant  of  the  use  of  iron." 

So  were  the  ancient  Egyptians ;  but,  like  the  Mexi 
cans,  they  had  copper,  which  the  latter,  as  it  has  been 
proved,  brought  from  Lake  Superior;  and  the  Egyptians 
made  bronze  as  hard  as  iron,  an  art  but  recently 
rediscovered.  Yet  all  such  testimony  requires  thoroughly 
scientific  treatment.  The  day  has  gone  by  when 
loose  hearsay  evidence  and  wild  conjecture  passed 
current  for  very  fair  archaeology  or  ethnology.  The 
man  who  cannot  absolutely  prove  a  fact  beyond  all 
suspicion  of  forgery,  exaggeration,  and  chance  coin 
cidence,  must  be  satisfied  to  offer  his  conjectures  very 
modestly,  and  merely  with  the  hope  that  they  will 
attract  the  attention  of  others  who  may  deem  the  hint 
thus  given  of  sufficient  importance  to  develop  by 
further  investigation.  Discoveries  like  those  of  the 
Spanish  archa3ologist  may  be  multiplied  ad  infinitum. 
But  they  prove  nothing  beyond  an  antecedent  proba 
bility.  And  as  I  have  kept  this  strictly  in  mind 
through  every  sentence  of  this  work,  having  specially 
selected  the  illustration  by  Mr  Roehrig  on  the  affinities 


RELATIONS  TO  THE  OLD   WORLD.  115 

of  the  languages  in  preference  to  others,  on  account  of 
its  cautious  spirit,  I  trust  that  I  may  not  be  accused  of 
positively  believing  that  the  "  discovery  "  of  America 
by  Buddhist  monks  is  an  established  fact. 

It  is,  however,  more  than  merely  probable  that  we 
shall  yet  make  very  important  discoveries  as  to  the 
Mound-Builders  of  America.  An  immense  stock  of 
their  remains  are  still  buried,  and,  in  the  present 
rudimentary  state  of  the  arch  geology  of  prehistoric  man, 
little  has  been  done — very  little — with  the  mate 
rial  which  has  been  gathered.  The  following  brief 
notice  from  the  Saturday  Review  of  a  recent  work  on 
the  subject,  sums  up  in  reality  nearly  all  that  is  known 
of  the  mysterious  race  which  once  covered  such  an 
immense  extent  of  American  soil  with  works  strikingly 
like  those  of  the  Old  World  :— 

"No  one,"  says  the  reviewer,  "  will  long  remain  in  uncer 
tainty  whether  the  Mound-Builders  were  or  were  not  the  ances 
tors  of  the  tribes  who  succeeded  them  in  their  possession.  Ths 
author  of  '  Prehistoric  Eaces' J  is  in  no  such  perplexity;  nor  do 
we  think  that  any  one  who  compares  the  two  "will  long  remain 
in  uncertainty.  The  vast  size  of  the  mound-works,  their  enor 
mous  number,  and  their  elaborate  formation,  imply  conditions 
wholly  unlike  those  described  in  the  volume  already  noticed. 
They  imply  not  a  thin  population  of  free  hunters  and  warriors, 
obtaining  a  fairly  comfortable  but  uncertain  sustenance  by  the 
chase  and  fishing  and  a  scanty  agriculture,  but  a  vast  nation, 

1  Prehistoric  Races  of  the  United  States  of  America,  by  Y.  AY. 
Foster,  LL.D.,  author  of  the  "  Physical  Geography  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,"  &c.  Chicago  :  Griggs  &  Co.  ;  London  :  Trubner  &  Co.,  1873.— 
Saturday  Review,  Aug.  30,  1874. 


n6      AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES,    WITH  THEIR 

well  fed  by  the  labour  of  a  portion  only  of  its  available  numbers, 
and  therefore  able  to  spend  immense  toil  on  such  constructions ; 
governed,  probably,  by  powerful  princes  able  to  dispose  of  the 
exertions  of  their  people  at  their  pleasure  ;  and,  if  Dr  Foster  is 
right,  an  extensive  empire  under  a  single  rule,  able  to  rely  on 
the  frontier  defences  for  the  security  of  the  interior.  We  have 
lately  noticed  other  works  on  this  subject,  and  it  will  therefore 
suffice  to  state  in  this  place  that  Dr  Foster's  book  is  one  of  the 
best  and  clearest  accounts  we  have  seen  of  those  grand  monu 
ments  of  a  forgotten  race,  and  to  note  its  peculiar  merits.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  the  distinct  judgment  expressed  on 
the  purpose  of  these  works.  They  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  :  the  animal  mounds,  or  imitations  of  animal  forms,  in 
rude  b«at  gigantic  earthworks,  chiefly  to  be  found  in  Wisconsin, 
to  which  it  is  difficult  to  assign  any  object,  except  one  of  religion 
or  commemoration ;  those  which,  square  or  round  in  shape, 
appear  to  have  been  intended  as  the  foundations  of  temple  obser 
vatories  for  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  of  dwellings 
(often  crowded  together  in  such  numbers  that  we  can  hardly 
assign  any  but  the  latter  purpose),  and  yet  not  entrenched ;  and 
those  works  which  are  distinctly  entrenchments,  often  containing 
mounds  of  the  second  class.  It  is  possible,  we  suppose,  that  the 
mounds  of  the  second  class  may  have  been  separately  stockaded, 
and  in  that  case  they  would  have  been  easily  defensible  ;  but 
where  several  are  found  near  together  with  no  entrenchments 
connecting  them,  it  is  difficult  to  think  that  defence  was  their 
primary  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  the  earthworks  which 
enclose  great  spaces  of  land  generally  appear,  by  their  form  and 
location,  to  have  been  fortifications;  and  Dr  Foster  observes 
that  they  rarely  appear  in  the  centre  of  the  region  occupied  by 
these  monuments,  but  rather  on  its  northern  border,  where  the 
empire  would  be  chiefly  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  warlike 
enemies.  To  the  question,  what  has  become  of  the  builders,  the 
author  replies  by  citing  traditions  of  the  earlier  and  more  civi 
lised  possessors  of  Mexico,  which  indicate  that  they  once  occu- 


RELATIONS  TO  THE  OLD   WORLD.  117 

pied  a  much  more  northerly  settlement,  and  were  driven  thence 
by  conquering  enemies.  The  absence  of  any  relics  of  stone 
buildings  on  the  mounds,  compared  with  the  grand  stone  ruins 
of  Mexico,  forms  an  obstacle  to  the  identification  of  the  earlier 
Mexicans  with  the  Mound-Builders ;  but  it  is  barely  possible  that 
a  people  who  built  entirely  with  wood  in  an  alluvial  country 
might  learn  to  erect  vast  buildings  of  stone  in  one  of  a  different 
character.  And  a  long  period  may  have  elapsed  between  the 
ejection  of  the  Mound-Builders  and  the  Aztec  conquest  of  Mexico 
— a  period  sufficient  to  account  for  great  changes  in  the  habits 
of  the  emigrant  race.  For  we  know,  at  least,  that  two  succes 
sive  forest  growths  have  covered  many  of  the  mounds  since  they 
were  abandoned,  each  of  which  must  have  occupied  centuries, 
and  may  have  occupied  almost  any  length  of  time.  The  Indians 
appear  to  have  had  no  tradition  of  the  Mound-Builders,  no  story 
of  their  conquest,  no  legend  even  to  account  for  the  existence  of 
the  mounds.  '  Our  fathers  found  them  here  when  they  came  '  is 
surely  not  the  sole  reminiscence  of  a  great  war,  and  of  the  con 
quest  of  a  civilised  people  and  a  fortified  empire,  that  would 
linger  among  the  children  of  the  conquerors.  Such  an  answer 
seems  to  imply  either  the  interposition  of  a  second  race  and  a 
second  extermination,  or  an  enormous  lapse  of  time,  sufficient  to 
extinguish  the  very  memory  of  such  a  history  as  always  lingers 
longest  in  the  minds  of  a  warlike  race — a  history,  too,  of  which 
the  monuments  were  always  under  their  eyes." 

Assuming  these  deductions  as  representing  the  state 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  Mound -Builders,  it  would 
seem  more  probable  that  they  preceded  the  present 
inhabitants  in  Western  America  by  hundreds,  or  even 
thousands,  of  years,  than  that  they  were  known  to  the 
Buddhist  priests  whom  we  suppose  may  have  visited 
their  land.  It  is  possible — though  it  is  as  yet  anything 
but  capable  of  demonstration — that  the  civilised  races  of 


1 1 8  AMERICAN  ANTIQ  UITIES. 

old  New  Mexico,  as  we  still  see  them  represented 
in  the  Pueblos,  were  descended  from  the  Mound- 
Builders,  and  that  their  ancestors  were  exterminated 
or  driven  to  the  south  by  a  rude,  fierce,  semi-Mon 
gol  race,  which,  derived  from  Asia,  gradually  changed 
its  characteristics  with  climate  and  intermixture,  until 
it  became  the  present  Red  Indian.  For  it  is  very 
certain  that  thousands  of  American  Indians,  parti 
cularly  those  of  short  stature,  or  of  the  dwarfish  tribes, 
bear  a  most  extraordinary  likeness  to  Mongols.  A 
closer  study  of  the  Indians  remaining  in  New  Mexico 
would  throw  light  on  this  question.  Meanwhile,  it  may 
be  temporarily  assumed  that,  as  nearly  every  point  in 
Hoei-shin's  narrative  seems  to  agree  more  or  less 
with  something  known  of  the  Mexican,  Peruvian,  or 
New  Mexican  history  or  legends,  it  was  not  with  the 
old  Mound-Builders  that  the  monks  came  in  contact. 


CHAPTEE     XII. 

IMAGES  OF  BUDDHA. 

THE  reader  may  recall  that  in  the  record  of  Hoei-shin 
he  speaks  particularly  of  the  images  of  Buddha,  in  con 
nection  with  the  holy  writings  and  religion  of  that  great 
reformer,  as  having  been  taken  to  America  in  the  year 
458  by  his  five  predecessors.  I  mention  this,  that  in 
case  any  other  inquirer  may  investigate  this  subject,  he 
may  pay  particular  attention  to  the  discovery  of  such 
images,  or  to  possible  imitations  of  them,  in  America, 
and  among  its  monuments.  For  to  present  the  sacred 
likeness  of  Buddha  to  the  eyes  of  the  world  was  held 
to  be  of  itself  almost  enough  to  convert  unbelievers. 
To  say  that  these  images  were  made  by  millions  would 
be  no  exaggeration.  When,  in  the  year  955,  the 
Emperor  She-tsung  placed  severe  restrictions  on  the 
Buddhist  religion,  more  than  30,000  temples  were  de 
stroyed,  and  a  mint  was  established  for  the  purpose  of 
converting  such  of  the  images,  &c.,  as  were  made  of 
precious  metals,  copper  or  bronze,  into  money.  Again, 
in  the  persecution  of  845,  "  the  copper  images  and 
bells  were  melted  down  and  made  into  cash."  It  is 


1 2  o      A  ME  RICA  N  A  NTIQ  UITIES,    I VITII  THEIR 

then  probable,  that  wherever  anything  could  be  carried 
these  compactly-formed  images  were  taken. 

Professor  Neumann  speaks  of  Buddhist  emissaries 
having  penetrated  to  Europe.  It  is  not  unlikely,  and 
I  am  reminded  of  it  by  the  fact  that  I  was  very  recently 
shown  a  Buddhistic  image  found  in  digging  for  the  St 
Pancras  Railway  above  Midland  Yard,  about  the  month 
of  December  1872.  It  was  discovered  at  a  depth  of 
fifteen  feet,  nine  feet  of  which  consisted  of  loose  soil 
or  debris  of  a  recent  character,  but  the  remaining  six 
feet  were  hard,  solid  earth.  The  character  of  the  latter, 
and  comparisons  with  similar  excavations,  judged  by 
the  ages  of  coins  found,  indicate  a  probability  that  the 
image  may  have  been  left  where  it  was  discovered  1000 
years  ago,  or  more.  I  regret  that  it  was  impos 
sible  for  me  to  obtain  this  relic  for  some  national 
museum  or  other  institution,  and  also  that  it  had  been 
broken,  by  being  ignorantly  used  as  a  child's  toy, 
though  it  was  quite  perfect  when  first  discovered. 
The  man  who  dug  it  up  spoke  of  fragments  of  similar 
images  having  been  found ;  but  owing  to  his  ignorance, 
nothing  whatever  can  be  inferred  as  to  whether  they 
were  Buddhistic  or  not. 

Images  resembling  the  ordinary  Buddha  have  been 
found  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  but  they  cannot 
be  proved  to  be  identical  with  it.  Their  attitude 
is  an  extremely  natural  one  for  any  man  not  encum 
bered  with  tight  nether  garments  to  assume  in  a  warm, 
climate ;  indeed,  it  is  the  ordinary  sitting  position  of 


RELATIONS  TO  THE  OLD  WORLD.  121 

all  men  who  are  not  accustomed  to  chairs.  At  a  grand 
ball  given  by  the  Khedive  at  Cairo,  in  1873,  I  saw 
several  native  gentlemen,  after  sitting  down  on  chairs, 
forgetfully  draw  their  feet  up  under  them,  and  sit  in 
precisely  the  manner  of  Buddha. 


THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS 


OF   THE 


NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


DEGUIGNES,  KLAPROTH,  AND   D'EICHTHAL. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DEGUIGNES,   KLAPROTH,   AND  D'EICHTHAL. 

THE  reader  has  probably  inferred,  from  the  allusions  to 
Deguignes  in  Professor  Neumann's  work,  that  the 
Chinese  discovery  of  Fusang  is  no  novelty  to  the  world 
of  science.  More  than  a  century  ago  that  sagacious 
and  sensible  savant  discussed  in  the  "  Mernoires  de 
1' Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres"  (vol. 
xxviii.,  1~61)?  "  Les  Navigations  des  Chinois  du 
cote  de  1'Amerique,  et  sur  plusieurs  Peuples  situes  a 
1'extremite  de  1'Asie  Orientale,"  and  endeavoured  to 
confirm  the  memoir  by  Hoei-shin.  The  Chinese  scholar 
Klaproth  attempted  to  refute  Deguignes,  but  employed 
arguments  which,  a  more  recent  writer,  D'Eichthal, 
with  the  aid  of  far  more  extended  and  accurate  infor 
mation,  has  in  turn  refuted.  It  is  true,  Deguignes 
was  no  more  able  to  absolutely  prove  that  Hoei- 
shin  and  his  predecessors  were  in  California,  than 
we  are  at  the  present  day.  But  he  did  his  best, 
by  adducing  such  testimony  as  he  could  collect ;  and 
we  have  at  least  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that 
something  has  been  added  to  it,  and  that  more  may 


126         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

be  contributed,  until  at  last  the  work  shall   be  com 
pleted. 

A  thorough  history  of  the  question  would  have 
made  it  proper  to  begin  with  Deguignes,  or  rather 
with  Kampfer  (bk.  i.  c.  iv.),  who  speaks  so  positively 
of  the  great  Eastern  Continent  beyond  Kamts- 
chatka,  discovered  by  the  Japanese.  But  as  the  trans 
lation  by  Neumann  from  the  Chinese  original  is  more 
complete,  and  as  he  has  succinctly  set  forth  the  whole 
question  as  it  was  in  his  time,  I  judged  it  best  to 
give  preference  to  the  translation  of  his  work,  and 
then  add  the  letter  of  Colonel  Ken n OH,  which  refers 
directly  to  so  many  statements  made  by  Neumann — 
a  course  which  will  not  seem  out  of  place  to  those 
who  will  bear  in  mind  that  Colonel  Kennou,  who 
has  accurately  surveyed  and  mapped  every  mile  of  the 
North  Pacific,  and  every  acre  of  its  shores  on  either 
side,  is  therefore  as  practically  familiar  with  the 
possibilities  of  the  route  as  any  man  can  be.  The 
importance  of  his  testimony  at  the  present  day,  and 
the  advanced  state  of  our  geographical  knowledge, 
will  appear  to  those  who  will  consult  the  curious 
Japanese  map  brought  to  Europe  by  Kampfer,  and 
given  by'liim  to  Hans  Sloane,  representing  the  North 
Pacific  ;  or  the  almost  as  erroneous  chart  of  the  same  by 
Philippe  Buache,  which  is  given  with  a  facsimile  of  the 
former  in  Deguignes'  Memoir  ("  Memoires  de  Lit.  et 
de  FAcademie  Roy  ale  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Let- 
tres,"  vol.  xxviii.,  1761).  Having  done  this,  I  propose 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIX.  127 

to  present  in  a  condensed  form  an  examination  of  the 
whole  subject  as  it  appeared  in  1864  to  M.  Gustave 
d'Eichthal,  a  scholar  well  known  for  his  learning  and 
enthusiasm  in  Greek  literature  and  other  subjects. 
But  before  passing  to  the  work  of  M.  G.  d'Eichthal,  I 
shall  touch  on  a  few  points  in  the  excellent  article 
by  Deguignes,  which  should  not  be  neglected.  He 
himself  regarded  the  facts  which  he  had  collected 
as  authentic,  and  not  as  mere  conjectures,  like  those 
indulged  in  by  Grotius,  Deliiet,  and  others,  rela 
tive  to  the  early  settlement  of  America — of  which 
latter  I  may  observe,  that  the  reader  who  is  de 
sirous  to  know  what  they  are,  can  find  them  all 
appropriately  set  forth  and  commented  on  in  living's 
"  Knickerbocker  History  of  New  York,"  a  most  fitting 
receptacle  for  theories  which  by  their  absurdity  have 
become  the  legitimate  property  of  the  humorist. 
Deguignes  attempted  honestly  and  modestly  to  adhere 
to  observation  and  probability,  and  the  result  is  that 
his  ideas  have  been,  in  part  at  least,  confirmed,  and  the 
arguments  of  his  opponents  proved  unsound. 

His  first  step  was  to  show  that  Li-yen,  a  Chinese 
historian  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century,  speaks  of  a  country  named  Fou-sang  (Busang) 
which  was  more  than  40,000  li  east  of  the  eastern  shore 
of  China.  To  reach  it,  "  one  must  depart  from  the 
province  of  Lea^-tong,  north  of  Pekin,  and  that  after 
travelling  12,000  li,  the  traveller  would  reach  Japan  ; 
and  thence  to  the  north,  after  a  journey  of  7000  liy 


128         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

arrive  at  the  country  of  Yen-chin  "  (Wen-schin,  the 
Painted  People).  "  Five  thousand  li  from  this  country, 
towards  the  east,  is  Ta-han,  which  is  20,000  li  from 
Fou-sang."  As  Deguignes  remarked,  "  Of-  all  these, 
we  only  know  the  Leao-tong,  the  northern  province  of 
China,  whence  vessels  sailed  ;  and  Japan,  which  was  the 
principal  station  for  Chinese  vessels.  The  three  other 
points  on  the  journey  are  the  Ven-chin  country, 
Ta-han,  and  Fou-sang.  I  hope  to  show  that  the  first 
is  Jeso,  the  second  Kamtschatka,  and  the  third  a  place 
about  California." 

The  next  step  was  naturally  enough  to  determine 
what  was  the  length  of  a  li  in  China  in  the  fifth  cen 
tury.  But  this  was  difficult  ;  for,  as  Deguignes 
remarks,  "  Although  at  the  present  day  250  li  make 
a  degree,  they  have  varied  in  the  past,  not  only 
under  different  dynasties,  but  in  different  provinces. 
Father  Gaubil,  who  made  deep  researches  in  Chinese 
astronomy,  did  not  venture  to  decide  this  measure.  He 
tells  us  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  literati  under  the 
reign  of  Han  maintained  that  a  thousand  li,  drawn 
from  south  to  north,  made  a  difference  of  an  inch  of 
shadow  at  noon  on  a  dial  of  eight  feet.  Those  who 
succeeded  them  thought  that  this  measurement  was  in 
correct,  since  they  judged  according  to  the  standard  of 
the  li  in  vogue  in  their  own  time.  But  if  we  cast  our 
eyes  on  the  li  adopted  by  the  astronomers  of  the  dynasty 
of  Learn,  who  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century  ("  Observations  Astronomiques  du  Pere  Gaubil," 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  129 

vol.  ii.),  we  shall  find  a  considerable  difference, 
since  their  250  li  from  north  to  south  give  in  like 
manner  an  inch  in  difference But  uncer 
tainty  may  in  this  case  be  avoided  by  observing  that 
from  Leao-tong  to  the  island  of  Toni-ma-tao  is  fixed 
as  a  distance  of  7000  li,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  li 
thus  established,  the  12,000  li  from  Leao-tong  to  Japan 
end  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  about  Mea-co,  its 
capital." 

Deguignes  determined,  with  great  intelligence,  that 
the  country  of  the  Wen-schin,  7000  li  north-west  of 
Japan,  must  be  Jeso,  from  the  exact  agreement  of  the 
accounts  given  of  that  country  by  Chinese  historians  of 
the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century  (Goei-chi  and  Ven- 
hien-tum-hao,  A.D.  510-515)  with  that  of  Dutch  navi 
gators  in  1643  ("  Ambassade  des  Hollandois  an 
Japon,"  vol.  i.  p.  10 ;  "  Recueil  des  Voyages  au  Nord," 
vol.  iii.  p.  44).  Both  describe  the  extraordinary 
appearance  of  the  natives,  and  speak  of  the  abundance 
of  a  peculiar  mineral  resembling  quicksilver.  "  Five 
thousand  li  from  this  country,  to  the  east,  lies  Tahan. 
The  manners  of  the  people  here  were  like  those  of 
Wen-schin,  but  they  spoke  a  different  language." 

I  trust  that  it  will  be  specially  observed  by  those 
who  think  the  journey  from  China  to  Aliaska  im 
probable,  on  account  of  the  dreariness  of  the  country 
and  its  great  discomfort,  that  the  old  travellers 
cited  by  Deguignes  speak  of  the  Chinese  navigators 
as  habitually  passing  through  many  Tartar  tribes, 


130        THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

crossing  the  Great  Desert  of  Chamo,  passing  over  the 
ice  of  a  great  lake  in  the  country  of  Ko-li-han,  and, 
north  of  it,  through  a  chain  of  mountains,  where  the 
nights  in  summer  were  so  short  that  one  could  hardly 
roast  a  leg  (or  breast)  of  mutton  between  sunset  and 
sunrise.  But  the  degree  to  which  the  dreariness  of  a 
country  will  deter  a  traveller  must  depend  upon  the 
traveller  himself.  Colonel  Kennon,  in  his  letter, 
speaks  of  the  years  which  he  passed  in  a  little  pilot- 
boat,  on  probably  the  very  route  traversed  by  Hoei-shin, 
as  the  happiest  of  his  life;  while,  as  to  the  land,  Lieu 
tenant  Cochran,  who  in  1823  had  the  hardihood  to  go 
on  foot  from  St  Petersburg  to  Kamtschatka,  found  the 
latter  country  delightful,  and  speaks  with  pleasure  of 
the  entertainments  there.  It  is  true  that  he  there  wooed 
and  won  a  wife,  an  incident  of  all  others  most  likely  to 
convey  sunshine  into  what  all  writers  agree  is  the  fog 
giest  country  in  the  world.  It  is,  however,  to  be  as 
sumed,  that  Hoei-shin  and  his  predecessors  went  by  sea 
—no  impossible  thing,  at  a  time  when  in  China  both 
astronomy  and  navigation  were  sciences  in  a  high  sense 
of  the  word.  Deguignes,  speaking  of  the  winds  and 
currents,  as  Colonel  Kennon  does,  says  that  the  Chinese, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  shores,  "  took  the  wind  from  the; 
north  of  Japan,  and  in  the  Sea  of  Jeso  sailed  to  the  east ; 
but  at  the  Strait  of  Uries  the  current  bore  them  rapidly 
to  the  north."  Therefore  they  entered  the  Strait  of 
Uries,  beyond  which  they  found  many  islands,  which 
extend  to  the  most  northern  point  of  Kamtschatka, 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HO  El- SHIN.  131 

and  where  also  terminate  the  5000  li  between  Jeso  and 
Tahan.  The  account  of  the  different  people  inhabiting 
the  North  of  Asia  on  the  route  to  America,  as  given 
by  Deguignes  from  several  old  Chinese  historians,  is 
far  more  detailed  than  that  in  Neumann.  From  this 
and  other  circumstances,  I  infer  that  Professor  Neumann, 
though  he  cites  Deguignes,  had  read  his  work  with  but 
little  care.  Deguignes  apologises  for  his  long  and 
detailed  account  of  these  tribes,  their  manner  of  life 
and  habits  ;  but  to  the  interested  reader  this  will  appear 
to  be  one  of  the  strongest  links  in  the  chain  of  evidence, 
since  no  one  on  perusing  it  can  doubt  that  the  Chinese 
were  perfectly  familiar  with  the  entire  northern  country 
to  the  very  edge  of  America,  and  had  been  so  for  many 
generations.  Deguignes  does  not  appear  to  have  re 
flected  that  the  naif  and  manifestly  truthful  accounts  of 
all  these  different  tribes  by  old  historians  strengthen 
his  arguments,  since  he  tells  us  that  he  has  omitted 
most  of  them.  It  is  worth  noting  that  he  cites  from 
Yen-hien-tum-kao  and  Tam-chu  that  "  the  Chinese 
travellers  who  intended  to  visit  Tahan  took  their  de 
parture  from  a  city  north  of  the  river  Hoam-ho,1  towards 
the  country  of  the  Ortous  2  Tartars.  This  town,  then 
called  by  the  Chinese  Tckung-cheou-kiang-tching,  must 
be  the  one  now  known  as  Piljo-tai-hotuu."  This  men 
tion  of  the  route  as  that  which  was  usually  followed 
indicates  that  there  was  in  those  days  much  travel  in 
that  direction ;  and  we  find  a  reason  for  it  when  we 

1  Hoang-hoin.  9  Ordos  or  Hotas. 


132         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

learn  that  at  an  earlier  period  the  chain  of  islands  from 
Asia  to  America  was  incredibly  rich  in  furs,  and  that 
at  a  time  when  furs  were  in  extraordinary  demand  in 
Europe  and  the  East,  a  demand  which  lasted  until  the 
fifteenth  century.  We  are  told,  for  instance,  that  the 
principal  charge  brought  against  a  Turkish  sultan  of  that 
time,  when  his  subjects  rose  in  rebellion,  was  that  he  had 
spent  millions  in  purchasing  sables,  this  fur  being  sup 
posed  to  be  possessed  of  virtues  as  an  aphrodisiac.  To 
secure  this  luxury  any  sum  was  given  ;  and  it  is  said  that, 
so  far  back  as  the  fifth  century,  the  Che-goei  tribes,  who 
lived  on  the  north  banks  of  the  Amur,  were  principally 
occupied  in  fishing  and  in  hunting  sables.  This  fur-hunt 
ing  extended  over  the  Aleutian  Islands,  which,  as  D'Eich- 
thal  remarks  (Revue  Archaologique,  1862,  vol.  ii.  p.  197), 
were  inhabited  before  their  conquest  by  the  Russians 
(1760-1790)  by  a  numerous  and  prosperous  population. 
"  As  we  leave  the  North,"  says  Maury  (Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  April  1858),  "  the  facilities  of  crossing  by  short 
voyages  increase,  and  the  natives  seem  to  find  more  and 
more  attraction  in  them.  With  nothing  but  a  leafy 
branch  for  a  sail,  the  boat-load,  consisting  generally  of 
a  man,  his  wife  and  children,  dashes  out  seawards  as 
soon  as  a  favourable  wind  blows,  and  proceeds  at  a  fast 
rate."  The  Russians  have  long  had  establishments 
on  the  islands  of  St  Paul  and  St  George,  whence  they 
send  vast  quantities  of  furs ;  and  Colonel  Kennon 
has  frequently,  while  conversing  with  me,  spoken  of  the 
beautiful  quality  of  many  which  he  saw,  but  which  he 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN. 


133 


was  unable  either  to  purchase  or  accept  as  a  gift,  owing 
to  a  special  request  from  the  Eussian  Government  that 
he  would  not  take  one  away.  Whatever  he  needed  for 
food  or  stores  was  supplied  with  great  generosity,  but 
no  furs  could  be  touched.  I  have  called  special  atten 
tion  to  the  furs  of  this  region,  since,  as  they  were  once 
much  more  abundant  there  than  at  present,  and  that  at 
a  time  when  it  was  more  the  fashion  to  wear  them, 
we  have  a  satisfactory  reason  to  account  for  the 
Chinese  having  at  one  time  been  familiar  with  the 
island  route  to  America,  and  for  their  having  gradually 
abandoned  it.  I  am  not  aware  that  any  special  stress 
has  been  laid  on  this  as  evidence,  but  to  my  mind  it 
fully  accounts  for  the  tone  of  the  old  writers  cited  by 
Deguignes,  who  appear  to  speak  of  going  to  America, 
not  as  if  it  were  a  legendary  exploit,  which  had  once  or 
twice  been  achieved  in  the  early  dawn  of  history,  but 
rather  as  a  common  incident. 

Tam-chu  states  that  it  is  fifteen  days'  travel  from  the 
Che-goei,  or  sable-hunters  of  the  Northern  Amur  to 
the  east,  where  are  found  the  Yu-tche,  a  race  derived 
from  the  Che-goei ;  and  that  a  further  journey  of  fifteen 
days  brought  the  traveller  to  Tahan.  But,  he  adds, 
people  also  reached  Tahau  by  sea,  sailing  from 
Jeso.  After  careful  examination,  Deguignes  deter 
mined  that  the  only  country  20,000  li  east  of  China,  to 
which  the  name  and  conditions  of  Fusang  could  pos 
sibly  be  applicable,  must  be  California  or  New  Mexico. 

"  The  Chinese  historians  add  to  the  account  of  Hoei- 


134        THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

shin  that  of  a  Kingdom  of  Women,  which  is  1000  li 
farther  east."  It  has  been  ingeniously  suggested  by 
M.  D'Eichthal,  that  as  the  term  women  was  formerly 
applied  to  entire  tribes  in  North  America,  the  monk 
may  have  heard  something  of  them.  Thus  the  Dela- 
wares,  having  given  up  their  arms  to  the  Six  Nations, 
and  become  proteges  of  the  latter,  were  formally  en 
titled  women,  and  accepted  the  name  at  a  grand  con 
gress  of  the  tribes.  As  for  the  absurdities  connected 
with  this  legend  of  the  women,  as  given  by  Hoei-shin, 
it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  he  uses  the  term  "it  is  said  " 
in  reference  to  the  statement  that  the  children  of  this 
woman-realm  appear  matured  at  the  age  of  three  years. 
Had  he  pretended  to  have  visited  the  country,  he  would 
not  have  given  as  a  matter  of  hearsay  what  he  must 
certainly  have  observed.  And  as  he  was  also  told  that 
these  women  suckled  their  babes  from  the  backs  of 
their  heads,  Deguignes,  with  his  usual  sagacity,  re 
marks,  "  It  is  easy  to  see  by  this  narrative  that  the 
women  fed  their  children  par  dessus  leurs  epaules — 
over  their  shoulders — as  is  done  in  many  places  in 
India."  The  following,  from  the  historians  Nan-su  and 
Ven-hien-tum-kao,  is  not  without  interest,  as  showing 
that  from  an  early  age  Chinese  vessels  were  driven  by 
storms  to  America: — "  In  the  year  507  (A.D.),  under 
the  dynasty  of  Learn,  a  Chinese  vessel  sailing  in  these 
seas  was  blown  by  a  tempest  on  an  unknown  island. 
The  women  resembled  those  of  China,  but  the  men  had 
faces  and  voices  like  dogs.  These  people  ate  small 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  135 

beans,  wore  dresses  made  of  a  kind  of  cloth,  and  the 
walls  of  their  houses  were  built  of  earth,  raised  in  a 
circle.  The  Chinese  could  not  understand  them."  If 
we  make  allowance  for  the  dogs'  faces  on  the  well- 
known  ground  that  the  Chinese  are  particularly  given 
to  applying  the  word  dog  to  all  people  whom  they  re 
gard  as  savages,  it  will  be  found  that  the  description 
applies  with  marvellous  exactness  to  those  New  Mexican 
Indians  who  held  a  middle  place  between  such  highly- 
cultivated  people  as  the  Pueblos  and  the  wilder  and 
ruder  tribes.  The  resemblance  of  the  women  to  those 
of  China  is  a  matter  of  common  remark ;  and 
one  of  my  own  earliest  observations,  as  a  boy,  was 
the  extraordinary  likeness  of  Afong-Moy,  a  Chinese 
woman  who  visited  America  many  years  ago,  to  an 
ordinary  squaw.  This  likeness  is  always,  however, 
more  striking  in  half-breed  Indian  women,  and  in  those 
of  light  complexion,  and  the  Pueblos  are  very  much 
lighter  than  other  Indians.1  The  enormous  consumption 
of  beans  (frijoles),  the  cloth  (which  was  very  beauti-  • 
fully  made  by  the  Pueblo- Aztecs,  from  early  ages),  and 
especially  the  circular  walls  of  earth,  all  identify  these 
Indians  with  those  of  New  Mexico.2  These  people,  as 
well  as  the  Indians  of  Louisiana  (Chevalier  de  Tonti, 

1  Captain  H.  C.  Leonard,  who  has  resided  for  twenty-five  years  among  the 
Chinooks,  and  who  is  familiar  with  all  the  North-western  tribes,  fully  con 
firms  this  statement  relative  to  the  general  resemblance  of  their  squaws 
to  Chinese  women. 

2  For  an   account  of  their   dwellings,   vide  Johnson's   "Cyclopaedia," 
X.Y.,  1874. 


136        THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

u  Voyage  au  Nord  "),  had  a  curious  habit  of  howling  and 
roaring  terribly  to  express  respect  and  admiration,  and 
this  may  account  for  the  voices  like  dogs  spoken  of  by 
the  Chinese. 

De(mignes  has  collected  some  curious   instances  from 

O         O 

old  writers  which  seem' to  prove  that  Chinese  merchants 
frequently  found  their  way  to  Western  America.  Thus 
George  Home1  (1.  6,  c.  5),  relates  that  beyond  the 
tribes  which  dwelt  west  of  the  Hurons,  there  came  in 
great  vessels  strangers  who  were  beardless.  Fr. 
Yasquez  de  Coronado  states  that  he  found  at  Quivir 
vessels  with  gilded  poops ;  and  Pedro  Melendez,  in 
Acosta,  speaks  of  the  wrecks  of  Chinese  vessels  seen 
on  the  coast,  "  And  it  is  beyond  question  that  foreign 
merchants,  clothed  in  silk,  formerly  came  among  the 
Catacualcans."  All  these  reports  intimate  that  the 
Chinese  once  traded  in  Northern  California,  about  the 
country  of  the  Quivir.  And  there  is,  moreover,  ground 
for  asserting  that,  at  one  time  certainly,  the  most 
civilised  tribes  in  North  America  were  those  nearest 
China.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  intelligent 
and  almost  refined  Pueblos  of  New  Mexico  are  the  de 
scendants  of  Aztecs  who  fled  to  the  north  after  the 
Spanish  invasion ;  but  the  traditions  of  the  Aztecs 
themselves  declare  that  they  came  from  the  north,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  Pueblos  have  always  been  where 
they  are.  Delae't  (bk.  vi.  c.  xvi.  and  xxil)  says  that 
near  New  Mexico  were  people  who  dwell  in  houses 

1    Vide  Delaet,  bk.  vi. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIX.  137 

several  stories  high,  with  halls,  chambers,  and  stoves. 
They  wore  skins  and  cotton  cloths,  but,  what  is 
unusual  among  savages,  had  leather  shoes  and  boots. 
Every  district  had  its  public  criers,  who  announced  the 
king's  orders,  and  idols  and  temples  were  everywhere. 
Baron  de  la  Hontan  ("Memoires  sur  1'Amerique") 
speaks  of  the  Mirambecs,  who  inhabited  walled  towns 
near  a  great  Salt  Lake.  These  people  made  cloths, 
copper  hatchets,  and  other  wares. 

Charlevoix  ("  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France  ") 
narrates  two  incidents,  which,  though  almost  incredible, 
are  at  least  worthy  of  consideration.  One  of  these  is 
that  Father  Grellon,  after  acting  as  missionary  for 
some  time  in  Canada,  went  to  China,  and  thence  to 
Tartary,  where  he  met  a  Huron  woman  whom  he  had 
formerly  known  in  Eastern  America.  Another  Jesuit, 
returning  from  China,  also  declared  that  a  Spanish 
woman,  originally  of  Florida,  was  found  by  him  in 
Tartary,  to  which  country  she  had  come  by  an  ex 
tremely  cold  northern  route. 

It  is  said  that  the  walrus  and  seal  hunters  of  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Kocoima,  in  Siberia,  are  often  carried 
out  to  sea  on  vast  floating  fields  of  ice,  and  occasion 
ally  drift  to  the  opposite  American  shore,  which  is  not 
far  distant.  Most  of  my  readers  will  recall  the 
wonderful  preservation  of  the  crew  of  the  Polaris, 
which,  with  women  and  children,  drifted  for  many 
months  on  an  ice-cake.  Indeed,  many  wild  animals, 
also  like  men  engaged  in  hunting,  may  in  this  way 


138         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

have    been    transported    from    one    continent    to    the 
other. 

These  are  substantially  the  points  advanced  by  De 
guignes,1  an  excellent  Chinese  scholar,  and  a  careful 
writer.  It  was  while  making  researches  for  a  history 
of  the  Mongols  that  he  found  in  the  works  of  old 
Chinese  historians  the  materials  for  his  theory  that 
America  was  peopled  from  the  North- west.  In  1831 
Julius  Heinrich  von  Klaproth,  a  distinguished  scholar, 
attacked  Deguignes  in  a  work  entitled  "  Recherches  sur 
le  Pays  de  Fou-sang  mentionne  dans  les  Livres  Chinois, 
et  pris  mal  a  propos  pour  une  partie  de  1'Amerique  " 
("  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voyages,"  t.  xxi.  cle  la 
deuxieme  serie,  1831).  By  this  work,  according  to 
Gustave  d'Eichthal,  Klaproth  did  much  harm.  There 
was  an  authority  attached  to  his  name  which  made  it 
easy  for  him  to  render  ridiculous  the  ideas  advanced  by 
Deguignes.  There  is  a  popular  tendency — especially 
in  France — to  ridicule  everything  Chinese;  and  in 
England  the  mere  idea  of  Chinese  metaphysics  awakens 
a  smile  in  the  readers  of  Dickens,  though  scholars  know 
that  Chinese  Buddhists  may  be  fairly  said  to  have 
exhausted  every  refinement  of  thought  known  to  d 
priori  or  pantheistic  methods.  In  ninty-nine  cases  out 
of  a  hundred,  the  sneering  critic  who  negatives  has  it 
all  his  own  way  with  the  public  for  a  time,  and  for 
more  than  the  present  time  he  does  not  care.  The 

i  Histoire  Generale  des  Huns,  des  Turcs,  des  Mongoles,  et  des  autres 
Tartares  Occidentaux,  Paris,  1756-58,  4  vols.,  par  Joseph  Deguigues. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SH1X.  139 

refutation  of  Klaproth  now  appears  worthless ;  he 
produces  nothing  new,  and  attacks  Degmgnes  entirely 
"  out  of  himself."  He  begins  with  a  plausible  quibble, 
by  accusing  Deguignes  of  being  false  to  his  title.  "  In 
the  Chinese  original,"  says  Klaproth,  "  which  Deguignes 
had  before  his  eyes,  there  is  nothing  said  of  the  navi 
gation  undertaken  by  the  Chinese  to  the  land  of 
Fusang;  but,  as  may  be  seen  further  on,  it  turns  upon 
a  notice  of  Fusang  as  given  by  a  Buddhist  priest 
who  had  been  there."  Klaproth  says  "  a  native  of 
the  country,"  and  by  the  country  he  means  Fusang. 
But  in  a  German  version  of  the  same  passage,  given  by 
Neumann  in  a  more  recent  work  ("  Ost-Asien  uud 
West- America,  Zeitschrift  fiir  allgemeine  Erdkunde," 
April  1864),  the  (or  this)  country  refers  to  China. 
Now  Deguignes  really  wrote,  according  to  his  title,  on 
the  navigation  or  voyages  of  Chinese  to  America,  and 
he  says  very  little  of  the  record  of  Hoei-shin,  beyond 
quoting  it.-  Deguignes  tells  us  nothing  of  a  Chinese 
original  in  his  title,  he  only  adduces  the  narrative  as 
confirming  his  other  researches  ;  and  Klaproth  appears 
fully  convicted  of  a  shrewd,  unscrupulous  trick,  such 
as  a  petty  Bohemian  might  have  recourse  to  in  some 
notorious  journal,  whose  ideal  of  criticism  is  to  make  a 
writer  appear  personally  ridiculous.  After  this  he 
makes  a  vigorous  attack  on  Deguignes'  estimate  of 
the  length  of  the  Chinese  li  in  the  fifth  century,  which 
ends  in  nothing,  since  he  thinks  that  the  Chinese  of 
that  time  had  no  means  of  estimating  distances  at 


140        THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

sea.  The  remark  is  that  of  a  man  accustomed  to 
believe  that  distances  cannot  be  measured  at  sea  with 
out  all  the  appliances  and  training  of  modern  science, 
while  the  truth  is,  every  captain  of  a  Yankee  coaster 
knows  that  it  can  be  done — not  very  accurately,  it  is  true, 
but  approximative^  or  tolerably  well — with  the  simplest 
instruments,  such  as  any  sailor  can  make.  But  as  D'Eich- 
thal  observes,  the  20,000  li  from  Tahan  to  Fusang  are 
probably  merely  arbitrary.  The  travellers  found  that, 
going  at  the  same  average  rate,  it  took  them  more  than 
twice  as  long  to  get  from  Tahan  to  Fusang  as  from 
Leao-tong  (north  of  Pekin)  to  Tahan.  The  obvious  and 
natural  way  to  measure  Hoei-shin's  20,000  li  from 
Tahan  to  Fusang  is  by  the  li  assigned  to  the  preceding 
distances,  and  according  to  this  standard  the  estimate 
is  accurate  enough. 

"  The  two  agree  in  placing  Wen-schin  in  the  island 
of  Jeso,  situated  7000  li  from  the  point  of  departure  on 
the  coast  of  Niphon.  There,  in  fact,  is  the  country  of 
the  Wen-shin  or  Tattooed  People.  The  Amos,  who 
then  occupied  the  northern  part  of  Japan,  or  the  island 
of  Jeso,  are  still  accustomed  to  paint  their  bodies  and 
faces  with  different  figures.  But  here,"  continues 
D'Eichthal,  "  all  agreement  between  the  two  writers 
ceases.  Deguignes  thinks  that  Tahan,  which  is,  accord 
ing  to  the  Chinese  account,  5000  li  from  Jeso,  must 
be  Kamtschatka.  In  this  conclusion  he  has  against 
him,  it  is  true,  the  important  sum-total  of  the  distance  ; 
but  on  the  other  hand  there  are  many  arguments  in  his 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  141 

favour,  which  we  shall  proceed  to  examine.  Klaproth 
holds,  however,  that  Tahan  is  simply  the  island  of 
Krafto  or  Tarai-kai,  the  southern  point  of  which  is 
found,  according  to  his  calculation,  exactly  5000  li 
from  the  northern  point  of  Niphon.  To  arrive  at  this 
conclusion,  as  the  distance  is  only  six  degrees,  Klaproth 
is  compelled  to  adopt  the  measurement  of  850  li  to  a 
degree,  which  he  had  just  before  rejected."  He  had 
said  that  the  distance  between  the  West  Coast  of  Corea, 
and  the  middle  of  Niphon  is,  according  to  Deguignes, 
too  great.  "  It  would  suppose  for  the  li  a  length  of 
850  to  the  degree,  whereas,  at  the  highest,  it  cannot 
be  more  than  400." 

"  But  to  continue.  If  the  island  of  Tarai-kai  is 
Tahan,  we  cannot  find  Fusang  20,000  li  to  the  east, 
for  the  nearest  land  in  this  direction  is  90°  distant. 
'  By  taking  the  story  literally,'  says  Klaproth,  '  and 
by  seeking  Fusang  east  of  Tahan,  we  fall  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean.' '  But  as  Fusang  must  be  found  some 
where,  and  as  it  was  a  foregone  conclusion  with  Klap 
roth  that  it  must  not  be  found  in  America,  he  assumes 
that,  having  arrived  at  the  southern  point  of  Tarai-kai, 
one  should  sail  first  to  the  east  in  order  to  pass  the 
Strait  of  La  Perouse,  coasting  along  the  northern  shore 
of  Jeso,  but  that,  having  arrived  at  the  north-east  point 
of  the  same  island,  he  would  sail  to  the  south,  and 
thus  arrive  at  some  part  of  the  South-east  Coast  of 
Japan,  where  Fusang  would  be  found. 

It  will  probably  occur  to  the  reader  that  this  would 


142         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

be  taking  a  deal  of  pains  to  destroy  an  adversary's 
argument,  and  weaving  a  very  tangled  web.  Yet  as 
the  last  word  always  has  weight,  this  argument  of 
Klaproth  held  its  own  for  many  years,  and  still  holds 
it  with  many  people.  It  is  true,  as  D'Eichthal  remark^ 
that  by  proceeding  in  this  style  Klaproth  put  himself, 
in  the  most  arbitrary  manner,  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  very  letter  of  his  text,  which  says  nothing  at  all 
about  sailing  up  and  down  and  coasting  around  islands. 
"  But  this  is  not  the  only  objection  which  can  be  urged 
against  him.  In  the  first  place,  nobody  in  Japan  ever 
heard  of  Fusang.  The  details  given  with  regard  to  it  do 
not  suit  Japan  in  the  least.  One  circumstance  is  decisive. 
Not  only  does  the  narrator  put  Fusang  20,000  li  east  of 
Tahan,  but  he  speaks  of  a  country  of  women  1000  li  from 
Fusang.  But  1000  li  to  the  east  of  Japan  must  be  in 
the  sea."  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Klaproth  asserts 
that  Fusang  is  an  ancient  name  of  Japan,  but  without 
citing  any  authority  on  which  to  support  such  a  serious 
and  very  material  statement.  His  arguments  have  been 
answered  not  only  by  D'Eichthal,  but  by  Sr.  Jose  Perez, 
in  an  article  in  the  Recite  Oricntale  et  Amdricaine,  No. 
4,  pp.  189-195.  For  a  Chinese,  even  in  the  sixth 
century,  to  place  in  Japan  such  a  marvellous  country 
as  Fusang  was  popularly  supposed  to  be,  would  have 
been  quite  as  absurd  as  if  a  French  traveller  of  the 
fourteenth  century  had  assured  the  world  that  he  had 
found  in  England  an  immense  region  inhabited  by 
giants.  For  popular  belief  very  soon  clothed  Fusang 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOE1-SHIN.  143 

with  incredible  marvels,  as  we  shall  see  anon ;  and 
Klaproth  supposes  this  possible  of  a  country  which 
was  at  the  time  constantly  exchanging  embassies  with 
China,  and  conveying  to  the  latter,  as  the  reader 
may  recall  from  Neumann's  work,  detailed  accounts 
of  all  its  provinces,  and  of  their-  inhabitants.  As 
Klaproth  admits,  Fusang  soon  became  a  fairy-land, 
which  Chinese  poets  loved  to  adorn  with  the  fantastic 
and  marvellous.  "  The  authors  of  Chan-hai-king,  of 
the  Li-sao,  Hoai-nan-tsu,  Li-pe-tai,  and  others,  have 
found  in  it  an  inexhaustible  resource.  According  to 
them,  the  sun  rises  in  the  valley  of  Yang-kon  and 
makes  his  toilet  in  Fu-sang,  where  there  are  mulberry- 
trees  many  thousand  rods  high.  The  natives  eat  the  fruit, 
which  makes  their  bodies  shine  like  gold,  and  confers 
on  them  the  ability  to  fly.  "  Such  fables  are  not  placed 
in  a  neighbouring  country.  They  require  for  plausibility 
great  distance,  and  entirely  strange  circumstances." 

Again,  the  narrative  declares  that  Buddhism  was  in 
troduced  into  Fusang  A.D.  458,  but  it  did  not  find 
its  way  into  Japan,  officially  at  least,  until  552.  How 
then  could  Fusang,  admitting  that  it  existed,  have 
been  a  part  of  Japan  ? 

"  But  to  throw  full  light  on  the  question,"  says 
D'Eichthal,"  we  should  study  the  second  itinerary,  that  by 
land  from  China  to  Tahan,  given  by  Deguignes  and  Klap 
roth.  We  shall  now  do  so  ;  and  if  accused  of  delaying 
too  long  over  these  documents,  we  reply  that  in  them 
we  find,  as  Deguignes  and  Klaproth  himself  had  clearly 


144         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

seen,  a  leading  element  in  the  question,  and  a  decisive 
argument  from  the  geographical  point  of  view  for  the 
existence  or  non-existence  of  ancient  communications 
between  Asia  and  America. 

"  The  traveller  by  land  from  China  to  Tahan  went 
from  the  upper  course  of  the  Hoang-hoin,  in  the  north  of 
China,  passed  through  the  country  of  the  Ordos  or 
Ho-tas,  traversed  the  desert  of  Cobi,  and  arrived  at  the 
principal  camp  of  the  Hoei-khe'  Turks,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Orchon,  not  far  from  its  source,  where  Kara- 
korum  was  afterwards  placed.  Thence  he  journeyed 
to  Lake  Baikal,  crossed  the  country  of  Ko-li-han, 
the  ancient  home  of  the  Kirkis  or  Khirghiz,  and 
turning  to  the  east,  came  to  the  Chy-we'i.  The 
most  southern  of  these  lived  near  the  river  Onoii, 
flowing  from  the  right  of  the  Upper  Arnoor  (Amur). 
By  travelling  fifteen  days  to  the  east,  or  in  the  direction 
of  the  Amoor,  were  found  the  Chy-we'i  Youtche,  pro 
bably  the  same  people  whom  other  Chinese  authors 
call  Youtchy,  that  is  to  say,  the  Djourdje,  the  ancestors 
of  the  present  Mongols.  From  this  point,  finally,  ten 
days'  journey  to  the  north  brought  the  traveller  to 
Tahan,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  and  also 
called  Lieu-koue'i.1 

"  We  should  have  under  our  eyes  the  work  of  Degui- 
gnes,  to  realise  with  what  care  he  has  discussed  every 
part  of  this  journey.  Then,  having  reached  the  final 
point,  he  reasonably  remarks,  that  as  one  travels  by 

1  Klaprotk,  pp.  62,  64  ;  Deguignes,  pp.  508-510. 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  -145 

land  all  the  way  to  arrive  at  Tahan,  it  cannot  be  an 
island,  yet  that  it  must  be  a  maritime  country  accord 
ing  to  the  first  route,  since  they  also  went  thither  by 
sea ;  and  basing  his  statement  on  the  two  views,  he 
places  the  point  de  recontre  of  the  two  itineraries  in 
Kamtschatka," 

"The  southern  part  of  Kamtschatka,  or  Talian,"  says 
Deguignes,  "  was  known  to  the  Chinese  under  the  name 
of  Lieou-kouei.  Of  old,  the  Tartars  who  lived  near  the 
river  Amoor  reached  it  after  fifteen  days'  sailing  to  the 
north  (Deguignes  traces  this  navigation  on  his  map). 
Chinese  historians  relate  that  this  country  is  surrounded 
by  the  sea  on  three  sides.  In  the  year  640  (A.D.),  the 
King  of  Lieou-kouei  sent  his  son  to  China.1  Accord 
ing  to  the  most  accurate  descriptions  which  the  Russians 
have  given  of  it,  this  country  is  a  tongue  of  land 
extending  from  north  to  south,  from  Cape  Sultoi- 
noss  to  the  north  of  Jeso,  with  which  many  writers 
have  confounded  it.  It  is  partly  separated  from  the 
rest  of  Siberia  by  a  gulf  of  the  Eastern  Sea,  which 
passes  from  south  to  north.  Towards  the  northern  ex- 

1  These  details  regarding  Kamtschatka  are  reproduced  in  an  article  by 
Professor  Neumann,  "  Ost-Asien  und  West- America,  Zeitschrift  fur  allge- 
meine  Erdkunde  "  (April  1864).  Professor  Neumann,  says  D'Eichtbal, 
gives  his  citations  as  from  Steller's  "  Beschreibung  von  dem  Lande  Kam 
tschatka"  (Leipzig,  1830),  but  they  were  originally  drawn  from  Chinese 
works.  In  Neumann's  statement,  the  envoy  of  the  son  of  the  king  of 
Lieou-kouei,  in  China,  is  mentioned  in  this  manner — "  In  the  year  640 
of  our  era,  in  the  time  of  the  second  Emperor  of  Tang,  the  Empire  of  the 
South  received  the  last  embassy  and  the  last  tribute  from  the  country  of 
Lieou-kouei"  (p.  316).  I  have  throughout  used  Deguignes'  original  work 
in  verification  of  D'Eichthal's  articles. — C.  G.  L. 

K 


146        THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

tremity  it  is  inhabited  by  very  ferocious  people.  Those 
who  live  towards  the  south  are  more  civilised.  It  is 
very  likely  that  their  commerce  with  the  Japanese  and 
Chinese  merchants  who  traded  on  their  shores  has  con 
tributed  to  make  them  milder  and  more  sociable  than 
those  of  the  north,  among  whom  these  two  more  refined 
races  rarely  come"  (p.  511). 

It  is  only  after  discussing  the  two  routes,  and 
settling  the  common  point  or  limit  as  we  have  seen, 
that  Deguignes  undertakes  to  determine  the  position  o:? 
the  country  of  Fusang.  "  This  long  detail,"  he  declares , 
"  was  necessary  for  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  situatior. 
of  the  country.  The  Chinese  narrative  informs  us  that: 
Fusang  is  20,000  li  distant  from  Tahan  or  Kam- 
tschatka.  Thus,  by  leaving  a  port  in  the  latter  coun 
try,  such  as  Avatcha,  and  sailing  east  for  20,000  li,  the 
voyage  ends  on  the  most  western  shore  of  America,  or 
about  the  place  where  the  Russians  landed  in  1741.  In 
all  this  immense  extent  of  ocean  there  is  no  land  nor 
island  to  which  the  distance  of  20,000  li  applies.  Nor 
can  we,  on  the  other  hand,  suppose  that  the  Chinese 
followed  the  coast  of  Asia,  and,  touching  its  most 
eastern  extremity,  there  placed  the  land  of  Fusang. 
The  excessive  cold  which  prevails  in  the  north  of 
Kamtschatka,  renders  this  supposition  untenable."1 

"When    Deguignes  wrote,"   adds    D'Eichthal,  "  the 

1  Both  Klaproth  and  Bretschneider  Lave  left  out  of  sight  the  fact  that 
Fusang  as  described  must  have  been  a  temperate,  if  not  a  warm  climate. 
— C.  G.  L. 


THE  NARRA  TIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  147 

solution  which  he  proposed  was  not,  however,  so  simple 
or  evident  as  it  may  appear  to  us  to-day.  At  that 
time  the  geography  of  the  North  Pacific  was  just  begin 
ning  to  be  cleared  of  the  darkness  in  which  it  had  been 
so  long  enveloped.  Behring  had  discovered,  in  1728, 
the  strait  which  bears  his  name ;  he  had  found,  in  1741, 
some  of  the  Aleutian  Isles,  the  promontory  of  Aliaska, 
and  the  northern  extremity  of  the  American  side ;  but 
he  had  not  been  able  to  make  exact  surveys.  Deguig- 
nes,  at  least,  did  not  possess  them ;  and  to  prepare  the 
singular  map,  designed  by  Philip  Buache,  which  ac 
companies  his  memoir,  the  illustrious  academician  had 
recourse  to  a  Japanese  chart. 

"  Since  M.  De  PIsle,"  he  says,  "  published  a  map  of 
this  part  of  the  world,  we  have  obtained  from  Russia 
information  which,  without  giving  with  accuracy  the 
contour  of  the  American  coasts,  teaches  us  generally  that 
the  coast  of  California  runs  towards  the  west,  and 
approaches  considerably  that  of  Asia,  leaving  between 
the  continents  a  narrow  strait,  agreeing  with  the  shape 
which  the  first  geographers  gave  to  America,  probably 
from  more  exact  knowledge  than  we  suppose,  and  which 
is  now  lost."  Thus  the  map  of  Asia,  published  by 
Sanson  in  1650,  gives,  between  Asia  and  America,  near 
the  place  of  Behring's  Straits,  the  Strait  of  Ainan,  as 
it  was  then  called.  This  strait  disappeared  on  Guil- 
laume  de  1'Isle's  map  of  1723,  but  reappeared  in  the 
same  map  re-edited  in  1745,  and  again  in  1762,  cor 
rected  by  new  documents.  This  information  was  con- 


148         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

firmed  by  Japanese  charts,  especially  by  one  which  Mr 
Hans  Sloane,  President  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
had  communicated  to  him,  and  which  he  placed  before 
his  paper  in  the  "  Memoires  de  1' Academic  des  Inscrip 
tions  et  Belles-Lettres."  "  It  agrees  on  the  whole,"  he 
declares,  "  with  our  old  maps  of  America,  and  with  the 
Russian  discoveries."  "  On  this  map,  about  the  part 
discovered  by  the  Russians,  America  seems  to  advance 
considerably,  and  form  a  tongue  of  land  which  extends 
to  Asia  (the  promontory  of  Aliaska).  In  this  case  it  is 
intelligible  that  the  Chinese  found  it  much  easier  to  reach 
Fusang,  since  they  thus  had  a  coast  to  follow  almost  all 
the  way." 

"It  was,"  says  M.  D'Eichthal  very  truly,  "with  a 
kind  of  prophetic  instinct,  or,  if  you  will,  with  extreme 
shrewdness  and  sense,  that  Deguignes  traced,  on  the 
map  made  by  him,  the  route  which  was  probably  followed 
by  those  whom  he  calls  navigateurs  chinois  to  get  to 
.America.  The  details  are  naturally  very  imperfect,  and 
Behring's  Island  is  the  only  one  given  of  the  Aleutians. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  promontory  of  Aliaska  is  out  of 
all  proportion  too  great,  both  in  length  and  breadth. 
There  is  an  entire  absence  of  all  astronomical  verifica 
tion  ;  nevertheless,  the  general  *  lay  of  the  land '  is 
correct,  as  recent  discoveries  have  confirmed.  We  have 
under  our  eyes  three  very  important  documents,  'Les  Ren- 
seignements  Statistiques  et  Ethnographiques  sur  les 
Possessions  Russes  a  la  cote  Nord-ouest  de  1'Ameriqne, 
by  Rear-Admiral  Wrangel  (*  Statistical  and  Ethno- 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  149 

graphical  Communications  as  to  the  Russian  Posses 
sions  on  the  North-west  Coast  of  America)  ;*  an  analysis 
of  the  work  of  Father  Wenjaminow  on  c  Les  Isles  (Aleou- 
tiennes)  du  District  du  Unalaska/  by  F.  Lowe  (from 
the  periodical  Archiv  fiir  die  mssenschaftliche  Kunde 
von  Russland,  1842,  8th  Part)  ;  and  the  critique  of  a 
memoir  by  Maury,  on  the  facilities  of  passing  from  the 
North-east  Coast  of  Asia  to  the  North-west  Coast  of 
America  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  April  1858).  All 
of  these  works  agree  in  demonstrating  the  ease  of  this 
communication,  and  that  of  settling  on  the  North-west 
Coast  of  America.  The  climate  of  all  this  region,  even 
at  the  60th  degree  of  latitude  is,  for  its  elevation,  very 
mild.  The  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Isles  and  the  pro 
montory  of  Aliaska  form,  as  it  were,  a  barrier  which 
exclude  Polar  influences.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
great  warm  current  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  observed  by 
modern  navigators,2  contributes  to  raise  the  temperature. 
Observations,  carefully  collected,  have  shown  that  at 
Sitka  the  average  temperature  is  7°.  39  Centigrade,  or 
5°. 91  Reaumur,  with,  it  is  true,  slight  differences  between 
summer  and  winter  :  even  in  winter  the  sea  is  never 
closed.  In  a  word,  according  to  the  unanimous  testi 
mony  of  navigators,  there  is  not  on  the  face  of  the 

1  In  the  original  edition,  "  Statistische  und  Ethnographische  Nachrichten, 
gesammelt  von  Contre- Admiral  von  Wrangel,"  St  Petersburg,  1839.  This 
is  the  first  part  of  the  collection  called  "Beitrage  zur  Kentuiss  des  Rus- 
sischen  Reichs,  &c.,  herausgegeben  von  K.  E.  von  Baer  und  von  Hel- 
merseu." — C.  G,  L. 

2   Vide  Letter  from  Colonel  Barclay  Kennon. 


ISO        THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

globe  such  a   change   of  climate   as  is  experienced  in 
passing  from  Behring's  Straits  to  the  Pacific  Ocean." 

All  that  has  been  said  of  the  extreme  facility  with 
which  the  natives  of  the  North  Pacific  pass  from  Asia 
to  America  has,  however,  according  to  M.  D'Eichthal, 
nothing  to  do  with  the  question  of  Chinese  or  Japanese 
navigation  between  the  continents  ;  and  therefore,  he 
thinks  that  here  Deguignes  erred,  and  said  too  much, 
when  he  entitled  his  memoir  "  Des  Navigations  des 
Chinois  du  cote  de  rAme*rique."  It  seems  to  me  that 
this  is  stretching  courtesy  to  Klaproth  to  affectation. 
Deguignes  believed,  from  several  sources,  that  Chinese, 
merchants  as  well  as  missionaries,  had  found  their 
way  to  California.  On  this  hypothesis  he  wrote  his 
book,  and  demonstrated  the  route  which  they  must 
have  followed,  and  therefore  he  had  a  full  right  to 
say  that  its  subject  was  on  the  "  navigations "  of 
the  Chinese  from  the  American  coast.  He  could  not, 
unfortunately,  give  the  log-books  and  diaries  of  the 
skippers  who  took  Hoei-shin  and  his  predecessors 
across ;  though,  if  he  had,  Klaproth s  would  not  have 
been  wanting  to  impugn  their  authenticity. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Deguignes  lays  stress  on 
the  high  culture  of  the  early  dwellers  in  New  Mexico. 
So  far  as  the  limited  information  of  his  time  extended, 
he  found  in  that  country  the  point  of  departure  and  the 
first  theatre  of  American  civilisation,  and  he  believed, 
according  to  D'Acosta,  that,  instead  of  the  inhabitants  of 
this  region  having  been  refugees  from  Mexico,  they  are 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  151 

the  remains  of  a  primitive  civilisation  from  which  the 
Mexicans  drew  their  culture  ere  they  wandered  south. 
D'Eichthal  appeals  to  ancient  works  not  known  to 
Deguignes,  and  also  to  the  most  recent,  as  verifying 
this  theory.  These  are  the  "  Narrative  of  the  Journey 
of  Cibola  in  1540,"  by  Castaneda  de  Nagera,  Paris, 
1838,  given  in  the  collection  of  "  Voyages,  Relations, 
et  Memoires  Originaux,  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  de  la 
Decouverte  de  1'Arnerique,  par  Ternaux  Compans ; " 
the  "  Reports  of  Explorations  and  Surveys  to  ascertain 
the  most  practicable  and  economical  route  for  a  railroad 
from  the  Mississippi  River,  made  under  the  direction 
of  the  Secretary  of  War  in  1853-54,"  especially  in  vol. 
iii. ;  "  Report  on  the  Indian  Tribes,"  by  Lieutenant  A. 
W.  Whipple,  Thomas  Ewbank,  Esq.,  and  Prof.  W.  W. 
Turner;  and  also  the  "Personal  Narrative  of  Explora 
tions,  &c.,"by  John  Russell  Bartlett,  New  York,  1854. 
In  these  works  may  be  found,  not  only  indubitable 
proof  of  the  former  highly-advanced  civilisation  of  New 
Mexico,  but  remarkable  indications  of  apparent  affinity 
with  Chinese  culture.  Deguignes  was  in  the  right 
when  he  suggested  that  the  oxen  seen  by  Hoei-shin 
were  probably  bison.  We  might  add  the  statement, 
that  in  Fusang  stags  were  raised  as  cattle  are  in 
China,  and  that  cheese  was  made  from  hind's  milk, 
"  as  appears  from  Popol-Yuh,  the  Sacred  Book  of  the 
Quiches,"  by  M.  I1  Abbe  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  1  (In- 

1  B.  de  Bourbourg  is  a  writer  who  must  be  cited  with  great  caution, 
but  he  is  probably  right  in  this  instance. — C.  G.  L. 


152         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

troduction,  p.  40).  He  was  also  strictly  right  in  assert 
ing  that  the  vine  was  .known  there,  and  that  iron  was 

O  / 

not,  but  that  copper  was  used,  and  that  gold  and  silver 
(owing,  doubtless,  to  their  abundance)  were  of  no 
value.  All  these  facts  were  strictly  applicable  to 
Mexico,  and  they  were  not  collectively  applicable  to 
any  country  then  known  to  the  Chinese.  Of  his  own 
knowledge  Hoei-shin  relates  no  marvels  ;  what  he  tells 
us  of  the  existence  of  a  white  race  is  fully  confirmed  by 
tradition  and  the  traces  still  existing  of  such  people. 
Lieutenant  Whipple  says  there  are  white  Indians  at 
Zuni,  the  principality  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Cibola, 
although  they  are  exceptions.  They  have,  he  says,  light 
or  auburn  hair.  The  first  Indian  seen  by  Father  Nic,a, 
in  1539,  is  described  as  a  man  of  light  complexion. 
Indians  of  this  type  have  since  existed.  And  Catlin 
remarks  that,  on  seeing  the  Mandans,  one  is  tempted 
to  exclaim,  "  These  are  no  Indians."  There  are  num 
bers  of  them  whose  colour  is  as  light  as  that  of  half- 
breeds,  and  among  the  women  "  are  many  who  are  almost 
white,  and  who  have  grey  eyes,  or  blue  and  hazel  " 
(Catlin,  "  Letters  and  Notes  on  the  Manners,  Customs, 
and  Conditions  of  the  North  American  Indians,"  fourth 
edition,  London,  1844,  vol.  i.  p.  93).  And  as  some 
uncertainty  may  exist  as  to  the  relative  colour  of  a 
half-breed,  I  would  explain  that  it  is  often  not  darker 
than  that  of  a  Chinese,  and  is  much  clearer,  the  cheeks 
being  generally  rosy.  I  have  seen  the  whole  of  Cat- 
lin's  portraits  of  Mandans,  and,  like  all  Americans 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIX.  153 

who  have  been  in  the  West,  am  familiar  with  Indians, 
both  of  fall  and  mixed  blood,  and  am  quite  sure  that  such 
an  expert  as  General  Whipple,  whom  I  have  known  per 
sonally  very  well,  never  mistook  a  half-breed  for  a  real 
Indian.  The  extraordinary  lightness  of  the  Mandan 
women  is  a  phenomenon  which  can  only  be  accounted  for 
by  their  belonging  to  an  entirely  different  stock  from 
the  other  tribes.  The  men  had  very  long  hair ;  braves 
who  were  6  feet  2  inches  high  had  it  trailing  for  two 
or  three  inches  on  the  ground. 

All  these  facts  agree  very  well  with  the  assertions 
of  Hoei-shin,  and  M.  D'Eichthal,  wiith  great  sagacity, 
points  out  that  even  the  two  prisons,  situated  one 
in  the  north,  the  other  in  the  south ;  the  one  for 
great  criminals  destined  to  endure  lifelong  punish-__ 
ment,  the  other  for  trivial  offenders.xfoincide  with 
the  ideas  as  to  future  punishment  held  by  some  In 
dian  tribes,  and  especially  by  the  Mandans.  Catlin 
tells  us  (vol.  i.  p.  157)  that  these  people  believed  that 
their  hell,  which,  like  that  of  the  Norsemen,  was  a 
cold  one,  desolate  and  horrible,  covered  with  eternal 
ice,  was  situated  far  to  the  north,  while  the  happy 
hunting-grounds,  or  their  paradise,  lay  in  the  south.  __ 

We  may,  perhaps,  even  dispense  with  supposing  that 
the  ox^n  seen  by  Hoei-shin  were  bison,  if  we  admit 
that  domestic  cattle  may  have  existed  in  America,  and 
been  exterminated.  Thus,  in  the  "  Relation  de  Choses 
de  Yucatan  de  Diego  de  Landa,"  the  author  tells  us 
that  an  Indian  chief  named  Cocom  showed  him  one 


154        THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

day  an  ancient  book  containing  the  picture  of  a  common 
European  cow,  and  told  him  it  had  been  prophesied 
that  when  such  beasts  should  come  into  the  country, 
the  worship  of  the  gods  would  cease  — "  Cessario  el 
culto  de  los  Dioses,  y  que  se  avia  cumplido,  porque  los 
espaiioles  truxeron  vacas  grandes."  It  is  true  that 
this  may  have  been  a  mere  trick  of  the  Indian  to  flatter 
the  Spaniard. 

D'Eichthal  has  vindicated  Deguignes  as  regards  the 
statement  that  hinds  (biches)  were  domesticated  in 
Fusang,  and  that  cheese  was  made  from  their  milk,  by 
citing  from  the  "Popol-Vuh"  (Introduction,  p.  xl.)— 
"  Milk  was  known  to  the  Mexicans,  who  were  accustomed 
to  milk  bison-cows  and  tame  hinds,  and  make  cheese." 
The  statement  appears  to  have  been  taken  from  Cas- 
taneda. 

"  The  analysis  which  we  have  made  of  the  work  of 
Deguignes,"  says  D'Eichthal,  "  shows  how  he  availed 
himself  of  the  different  geographical  and  historical 
documents  consulted  by  him,  especially  the  Chinese 
narrative  of  Fusang.  There  is,  however,  in  this  rela 
tion  a  point  which  has  escaped  him;  he  did  not, 
and  in  fact  could  not,  understand  who  or  what  those 
priests  were  who,  in  the  458th  year  of  our  era,  carried 
their  doctrines  to  the  country  of  Fusang ;  nor  did  that 
other  priest,  who,  forty  years  later,  wrote  of  that 
country."  "  Formerly,"  says  Deguignes,  "  these  nations 
had  no  knowledge  of  the  religion  of  Fo.  In  the  year 
458  A.C.,  under  the  dynasty  of  Sum  (Sung),  five  bonzes 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SH1N.  155 

of  Samarcand  carried  their  doctrines  into  this  country  : 
then  the  manners  changed"  (p.  523). 

For  Deguignes,  as  for  all  men  of  his  time,  the  reli 
gion  of  Fo  was  simply  one  of  the  national  religions  of 
China.  Its  identity  with  Buddhism  was,  I  believe, 
not  even  suspected.  But  how  could  those  pretended 
Chinese  bonzes  have  come  from  Samarcand?  Deguignes, 
it  appears,  did  not  even  ask  himself  this  question. 

In  the  time  of  Klaproth,  ideas  were  more  advanced. 
The  identity  of  the  religion  of  Fo  and  Buddhism  was 
now  acknowledged ;  and  the  passage  in  question  is 
much  better  translated — "  Formerly  the  religion  of 
Buddha  did  not  exist  in  those  countries.  It  was  in  the 
fourth  year,  la-ming,  of  the  reign  of  Hiao-wou-te,  of 
Souang  (458  A.C.),  that  five  pi-khieou,  or  priests  of  the 
country  of  Ki-pin  (the  ancient  Kophen)5  went  to  Fusang, 
and  there  spread  the  law  of  Buddha.  They  took  with 
them  books,  holy  images,  ritual  observances,  and  estab 
lished  habits  of  monasticism  which  altered  the  manners 
of  the  inhabitants." 

The  land  of  Ki-pin,  the  ancient  Kophen,  is  now 
called  JBokhara,  the  country  of  Samarcand.  Samar-  < 
cand,  indeed,  at  the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking, 
was  one  of  the  great  strongholds  of  Buddhism.  It  was 
in  the  centre  of  Asia,  one  part  of  it  touching  Persia, 
another  Turkestan — at  the  opening  of  all  the  roads 
which  led  from  that  central  point  to  the  northern  fron 
tier  of  China,  and  to  the  north-east  of  Asia  and  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific.  If  Klaproth  had  admitted  that 


155         THE  ADVOCATES  AND  OPPONENTS  OF 

Fusang  was  in  America,  lie  would  have  found  in  this 
indication  an  excellent  setting-out-point  for  studying 
the  institutions  and  monuments  of  America,  and  their 
relations  with  Asia.  ;  He  could  the  more  easily  have 
done  so,  because  at  that  time  the  journey  of  Humboldt 
to  New  Spain,  and  also  the  "  Views  of  the  Cordilleras 
-and  Andes,"  had  already  appeared,  and  in  those  works 
numerous  affinities  between  the  various  civilisations  of 
America  and  Eastern  Asia  were  plainly  shown.  But 
by  his  determination  to  place  Fusang  on  the  South-east 
Coast  of  Japan,  Klaproth  not  only  lost  the  benefit  of 
the  revelations  on  the  subject  of  Buddhism  furnished  by 
the  Chinese  document,  but  also  found  it  a  stumbling- 
block.  As  we  have  already  remarked,  he  was  led  to 
fix  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  a  Japanese  pro 
vince  in  the  year  458  of  our  era,  whereas  he  knew  and 
owned  that  the  establishment  of  Buddhism  in  Japan 
did  not  take  place  until  the  year  582.  Besides,  we 
must  remember  that  in  Klaproth's  time  the  history  of 
Buddhism,  though  clear,  was  still  very  incomplete. 
The  great  works  of  Hodgson,  of  Turner,  of  Burnouf, 
and  those  which  are  derived  from  them,  had  not  yet 
appeared.  That  which  Deguignes  could  not  even  ima 
gine,  that  which  even  Klaproth  could  have  accomplished 
but  imperfectly,  is  now  easy.  "  By  summing  up  all 
that  we  now  know  of  the  internal  development  and 
the  distant  propagation  of  Buddhism,  we  can  well  under 
stand  what  may  have  been  the  result  of  its  teaching  in 
America,  and  can  judge,  from  this  point  of  view, 


THE  NARRATIVE  OF  HOEI-SHIN.  157 

the  institutions  and    monuments  of  ancient  American 
civilisation." 

Such  is,  in  brief,  the  substance  of  M.  D'Eichthal's 
vindication  of  Deguignes  against  the  attack  of  Klap- 
roth,  though  it  would  be  but  just  to  say  that  he  has 
added  to  it  a  mass  of  valuable  information  which  should 
be  read  by  all  who  take  an  interest  in  the  subject.  Let 
me,  in  conclusion,  add  a  word  in  sincere  praise  of  the 
very  moderate  tone  of  his  defence.  Those  who  have 
read  the  bitter  accusations  which  other  writers  have, 
in  a  spirit  of  honest  indignation,  hurled  against  Klap- 
roth,  will  understand  and  fully  agree  with  me. 


THE 

LATEST  DISCUSSION    OF    FUSANG. 


T.    SIMSON,   AND    DR  E.    BRETSCHNEIDER. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

T.    SIMSON  AND  DR  E.  BRETSCHNEIDER  ;     OR  EUROPEANS 
RESIDING  IN  CHINA  ON  FUSANG. 

IN  the  "  Notes  and  Queries  on  China  and  Japan," 
published  at  Hong  Kong,  there  appeared  in  No.  4, 
April  1869,  this  communication: — 

"  BUDDHIST  PRIESTS  IN  AMERICA. 

"  I  see  the  following  statement  in  a  recent  home  paper : — 
"  Professor  Carl  Neumann,  of  Munich,  a  diligent  student  of 
Chinese  antiquities  and  bibliography,  has  discovered  from  the 
Chinese  Year-Books  that  a  company  of  Buddhist  priests  entered 
this  vast  continent,  via  Aliaska,  a  thousand  years  before  Columbus, 
and  explored  thoroughly  and  intelligently  the  Pacific  borders, 
penetrating  into  the  land  of  Fusang  —  for  so  they  called  the 
Aztec  territory,  after  the  Chinese  name  of  the  Mexican  aloe. 

u  Perhaps  some  of  your  numerous  contributors  may  be  able 
to  verify  the  learned  sinologue's  discovery,  and  for  that  purpose 
I  beg  to  submit  it  to  further  inquiry.  Y.  J.  A. 

"  SHANGHAI,  March,  24,  1869." 

In  consequence  of  this  request  by  Y.  J.  A.,  there 
appeared  in  the  next  number  of  the  "  Notes  and 
Queries  for  China  and  Japan  "  the  following  letter : — 


1 62          THE  LA  TEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

«  BUDDHIST  PHIESTS  IN  AMERICA  (vol.  iii.  p.  58).— Under 
this  heading,  a  querist  in  the  last  number  of  Notes  and  Queries 
submits  to  inquiry  a  statement  of  Professor  Carl  Neumann  of 
Munich,  respecting  the  supposed  entry  of  Buddhist  priests  into 
the  American  Continent  some  thirteen  hundred  years  ago,  and 
their  passage  into  the  land  of  the  Aztecs,  which  they  called 
Fusang,  '  after  the  Chinese  name  of  the  American  aloe.' 

"  Now,  in  the  first  place,  this  statement,  if  true,  inferential^ 
proves  much  more  than  it  asserts  ;  the  Mexican  aloe  is  a  native 
of  Mexico  only,  and  it  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  if  these  sup 
posed  Chinese  travellers  named  the  country  after  the  Chinese 
name  of  the  Mexican  aloe,  that  plant  must  have  been  well  known  to 
them  before  the  period  of  their  visit  to  its  native  country  ;  hence 
we  are  carried  further  back,  to  a  time  when  the  Mexican  aloe  must 
have  been  known  in  China,  and  we  must  allow  a  considerable 
period  for  it  to  have  become  so  well  known  as  to  suggest  to  the 
travellers  a  name  for  a  newly-discovered — or,  as  it  must  needs 
have  been  in  this  view,  a  rediscovered  country.  This  considera 
tion  takes  ns  back  into  the  question  of  the  original  peopling  of 
the  American  Continent,  to  the  age  of  stone  or  bronze,  perhaps, 
which  is  beyond  the  intended  scope  of  the  querist's  quotation. 

"  At  the  period  when  '  the  land  of  Fusaug  is  first  mentioned 
by  historians,'  China,  exclusive  of  the  neighbouring  '  barbarous 
tribes,'  over  whom  she  held  sway,  was  not  so  extensive  as  she  is  at 
present,  but  comprised  only  what  we  should  now  call  the  Northern 
and  Central  Provinces.  Does  the  Mexican  aloe  grow  in  that  part 
of  the  country  at  all  1  I  am  inclined  to  think  not,  though  I 
cannot  speak  positively  upon  the  point.  In  Canton  it  is  said  by 
the  Chinese  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  is  called  Spanish  (or  Philippine)  hemp,  its  fibres  being  some 
times  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  mosquito  nets. 

"  But  the  Fusang  (or,  more  correctly,  the  Fusang  j^fc  ^ 

*  /\  .^-xfv.. 

tree),  as  described  in  Chinese  botanical  works  appears  to  be  a 
malvaceous  plant ;  at  any  rate,  whatever  it  may  be,  it  certainly 
is  not  the  Mexican  aloe,  or  anything  similar  to  it. 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.        163 

"  The  land  of  Fusang  is  described  by  Chinese  authors  as 
being  in  the  Eastern  Sea,  in  the  place  where  the  sun  rises.  Con 
sidering  the  geographical  limits  of  China  at  the  time  referred  to 
(some  1300  years  ago),  surely  we  need  not  look  further  than 
Japan  for  a  very  probable  identification  of  the  Fusang  country 
according  with  this  description,  which  indeed  appears  to  be  em 
bodied  in  the  more  modern  name  Jih-pen-kwoh,  Japan,  which  is 
translatable  as  the  '  Country  of  the  Rising  Sun.'  It  is  a  matter 
of  fact,  too,  that  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  that  country 
some  1300  years  ago  ;  and  this  by  no  means  extraordinary  event 
is  a  very  much  more  probable  version  of  the  incident  referred 
to  than  the  marvellous  story  given  by  Professor  Neumann. 

"  CANTON.  THEOS.  SIMSOX." 

The  note  of  Y.  J.  A.,  of  March  24,  1869,  refers  rather 
vaguely  to  a  statement  in  "  home  papers,"  by  which 
I  infer  that  American  journals  are  to  he  understood. 
In  1850  I  published  in  the  New  York  Knickerbocker 
Magazine,  for  the  first  time,  my  version  of  Professor 
Neumann's  little  work ;  and  in  1862  republished  in  the 
Continental  Magazine  (N.Y.),  which  I  then  edited,  the 
greater  portion  of  it,  with  additions  of  my  own.  It  is 
probable  that  the  paragraph  from  the  "  home  paper  " 
cited  by  Y.  J.  A.  originated  in  an  erroneous  inference 
drawn  from  a  hasty  perusal  of  one  of  these  articles. 
It  is  therefore  needless  to  comment  on  Mr  Sinison's 
ignorance  of  the  work  which  he  attacked.  His  in 
ference  that  the  giving  a  name  to  the  maguey  by  the 
Buddhist  monks  infers  a  long  previous  acquaintance 
with  the  plant,  indicates  a  very  slight  knowledge  of  the 
manner  in  which  names  are  generally  given  by  new- 


164         THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

comers  to  a  strange  country,  as  Professor  Neumann  has 
indeed  intimated.      In  North  America  the    number  of 
names  thus  applied,  or  misapplied,  is  incredibly  large. 
For   an    instance   nearer  home,  we  may  take   our  own 
English    gipsies,  who    call  a    dog    a  jackal    (juckal), 
a   swan  by  the  Persian  word  for  a   pelican  (sdkka  or 
scMu\  and  small  grain  by  the   Hindu  word  for  rice 
(shali-giv,  Hindu  shalita).     Hoei-shin  did  as  the  Ameri 
cans  and  gipsies  have  done  ;  having  no  word  for  a  natu 
ral  product  which  was  new  to  him,  he  heedlessly  gave 
to  it  the  name  of  a  familiar  plant  which  he  fancied  re 
sembled  it.      The  fact  that  the  plant  known  to  Chinese 
botanists  as  the  Fusang  is  malvaceous,  and  unlike  the 
maguey,  conflicts  in  nothing  with  the  probability  that 
Hoei-shin   saw  the   great  American  aloe.      What  the 
fancied  point  of  resemblance  may  have  been,  or  what 
kind  of  a  Chinese  Fusang-plant  he  had  in  his  mind, 
is    of   comparatively    slight    importance.       The    main 
point,   and   the  one   steadily  ignored  by  all  who  have 
^-opposed    the    views    of    Deguignes    and    Neumann,   is 
this  :  did  not  Hoei-shin  see  in  the  land  of  Fusang,  and 
afterwards   describe — no   matter  by  what  name — a  re 
markable  plant,  which  is  to-day  the  characteristic  plant 
of  the  region  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  visited.   The 
geographical   questions  raised  by  Mr  Sirnson,   and  the 
possible  identity  of  Japan  with  Fusang,  have  been  too 
carefully   considered    by   M.    D'Eichthal    to    render  a 
further  discussion  of  them  necessary. 

As  for  the  possible   antiquity  of  the   name  Fusang, 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.         165 

as  applied  to  the  maguey,  taking  us  "  back  into  the 
age  of  stone  or  bronze  perhaps,  which  is  beyond  the 
intended  scope  of  the  querist's  quotation,"  it  should  be 
remarked  that  the  ages  of  both  stone  and  bronze  existed 
contemporaneously  for  many  centuries  on  the  North 
American  Continent  until  it  was  settled  by  Europeans  ; 
and  further,  that  the  age  of  stone  continues  to  exist 
among  a  few  tribes,  as  I  have  acquaintances  who 
not  many  years  ago  witnessed  the  process  of  making 
flint  arrow-heads  among  the  Indians  of  Oregon.  I 
can  remember  having,  when  a  boy,  occasionally  seen, 
among  sheaves  of  arrows  bought  from  the  Indians  of 
the  plains,  a  few  which  were  flint-tipped,  though  these 
were  rare,  most  of  them  appearing  to  have  heads  made 
from  iron  hoops.  It  is  therefore  evident,  that  by  trans 
ferring  the  period  when  the  name  Fusang  was  given  to 
the  "  age  of  stone  or  bronze  "  by  no  means  removes  the 
intended  scope  of  the  querist's  quotation  into  an  era 
so  remote  and  obscure  as  to  defy  research. 

The  discussion  of  the  question  on  its  native  soil,  and 
in  its  fatherland,  China,  did  not,  however,  end  here. 
In  the  fifth  number  of  the  Chinese  Recorder  and 
Missionary  Journal,  vol.  iii.,  published  at  Foochow, 
October  1870,  there  appeared  an  article  entitled 
"Fusang;  or,  Who  Discovered  America?"  by  "  E. 
Bretschneider,  Esq.,  M.D."  It  was  as  follows  :— 

"  In  the  May  number  of  the  Chinese  Recorder  there  is  an 
article  reproduced  from  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  in  which  it 
is  sought  to  be  proved  that  the  Chinese  had  discovered  America 


1 66         THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 


as  early  as  500  A.D.  Simultaneous  with  this  there  appears 
in  Notes  and  Queries  (vol.  iv.  p.  19)  a  short  notice  on  the 
same  subject,  in  which  it  is  desired  to  collect  and  publish  all 
notices  concerning  Fusang,  by  which  name  the  Chinese  of  that 
time  are  said  to  have  called  the  newly-discovered  America. 

u  This  supposed  discovery  of  America  by  Buddhist  priests 
has  already  been  the  subject  of  remarks  in  Notes  and  Queries 
(vol.  iii.  pp.  58,  78).  Moreover,  this  is  no  new  view.  The  first 
who  advanced  this  hypothesis  was  the  well-known  French  sinolo 
gist  Deguignes.  ( Vide  his  '  Recherches  sur  les  Navigation  des 
Chinois  du  cote  de  1'Asie,  Mein.  de  l'Acade"mie  des  Inscriptions,' 
&c.,  vol.  xxviii.  pp.  505,  52G).  Klaproth,  in  his  work 
4  Aimales  des  Empereurs  du  Japon,'  1834,  p.  4,  has  already 
pointed  out  the  mistakes  into  which  Deguignes  has  fallen. 

"  Mr  Taravey  published  two  brochures  on  the  same  subject. 
1  L'Amerique  sous  le  nom  de  Pays  de  Fusang,  a-t-elle  e"te"  connue 
en  Asie  des  le  cinquieme  siecle  de  notre  6re,  dans  les  -grandes 
annales  de  la  Chine.'  The  other  brochure  is  entitled  '  L'Ame 
rique  sous  le  nom  de  Fusang.  Nouvelles  preuves  que  le  Pays 
de  Fusang  est  FAmerique.'  I  have  not  read  these  disserta 
tions.  They  are  quoted  by  Andrae  and  Ceiger,  1864,  in  the 
'  Bibliotheca  Sinologica.'  I  am  also  equally  unacquainted  with 
the  article  of  Mr  Neumann."  (To  thisDr  Bretschneider  appends 
as  a  footnote  —  "  Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  learned 
with  regret  of  the  death  of  this  eminent  Oriental  scholar.") 
"  I  believe,  however,  that  the  Chinese  notices  about  Fusang 
are  all  derived  from  one  and  the  same  source,  and  each 
and  all  rest  upon  the  statements  of  a  lying  Buddhist  priest, 
Hui-shen,  who  asserts  that  he  was  in  Fusang.  His  stories  are 
found  in  the  'History  of  the  Liang  Dynasty'  (502-550  A.D.), 
chap,  liv.,  and  are  reproduced  by  Ma-tuan-lin,  and  in  other 
historical  works. 

"  The  'History of  the  Liang  Dynasty'  refers, in  the  same  chapter 
in  which  Fusang  is  spoken  of,  to  a  number  of  countries,  chiefly 
islands,  which  must  be  placed  in  the  same  category  as  Fusang — 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.         167 

that  is  to  say,  the  intelligence  regarding  these  countries  rests 
upon  rumours  and  fables.  In  order  to  be  able  properly  to 
estimate  the  accounts  relating  to  Fusang,  I  shall  refer  shortly 
to  these  countries.  The  historian  of  the  Liang  dynasty  speaks 
first  of  the  land  of  the  dwarfs  (Chu-ju-kuo),  lying  to  the  south  of 
Japan.  Here,  probably,  the  islands  of  Leu-chew  are  meant,  whose 
inhabitants  are  really  of  little  stature.  These  accounts  regarding 
the  dwarfs  are  reproduced  from  the  history  of  the  posterior  Han. 
The  Chinese  first  became  acquainted  in  the  year  605  A.D.  with  the 
Leu-chew  Islands.  The  lands  of  the  naked  men  (Lo-kuo),  and  the 
black-toothed  men  (Hei-chi),  were  reached  in  a.  year  by  a  sea- 
voyage  in  a  south-easterly  direction.  The  latter  intelligence  is 
also  reproduced  from  the  history  of  the  Han,  and  seems  to  be 
an  allusion  to  the  nations  which  chew  betel-nut.  Ten  thousand 
li  south-west  from  this  is  a  country  of  islands  inhabited  by 
black  nasty  people  with  white  eyes.  Their  flesh  is  nevertheless 
very  well  tasted,  and  those  who  sail  thither  shoot  them  in  order 
to  eat  them.  Wen-shen,  the  country  in  which  the  people  tattoo 
themselves,  lies  7000  li  north-east  from  Japan.  The  inhabitants 
make  large  lines  upon  their  bodies,  and  especially  upon  their 
faces.  By  a  stretch  of  the  imagination,  we  might  suppose  the 
North  American  Red  Indians  to  be  here  meant.  It  is  known, 
however,  that  the  Japanese  have  also  the  custom  of  tattooing 
themselves. 

"  Lastly,  the  country  Tahan  is  mentioned  as  5000  li  east  of 
the  above.  War  is  here  unknown.1  According  to  this  informa 
tion,  we  should  look  for  Tahan  somewhere  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
or  still  further  east.  The  historians  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  618- 
907,  however,  assign  this  land  to  a  place  in  the  middle  of 
Siberia.  The  following  is  found  in  the  fj£*  fH*  chapter  259  b. 

"  '  The  land  Tahan  is  rich  in  sheep  and  horses.  These,  and 
likewise  the  men,  are  of  great  stature.  Hence  the  name  Tahan. 

1  This  statement  is  made  from  other  sources  regarding  the  Esquimaux 
by  Sir  John  Lubbock,  "  PrekUt.  Civ." 


168        THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

At  the  lake  Kien-hai  (Baikal,  according  to  Father  Hyacinth), 
the  countries  of  Kie-kia-ssu  and  Kii.  The  first,  according  to 
Klaproth  ('  Tableaux  Historiques  de  1'Asie  ')  and  others,  were  the 
Hakas,  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Kirghises,  and  dwelt  in  the 
present  Siberian  government  of  Tomsk  and  Yenissey.  They 
formed  at  the  time  of  the  Tang  dynasty  a  powerful  country. 
The  country  of  the  Kii  is  described  as  richly  wooded.  '  No 
grass,  much  moss.  There  are  neither  sheep  nor  horses.  On  this 
account  stags  are  used  as  domestic  animals,  and  harnessed  to 
carts  (sledges).  They  are  fed  with  moss.  The  people  are 
clothed  with  stag-skins.'  The  Chinese  historian  adds  to  this, 
that  the  people  of  Tahan  had  no  early  intercourse  with  the 
Chinese.  It  was  only  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century  that 
envoys  from  there  came  to  the  Chinese  court,  and  brought  sables 
and  horses.  According  to  the  above,  Tahan  must  have  been  a 
country  on  the  Lena  and  Yenissey  rivers. 

"The  above-mentioned  Buddhist  priest,  Hui-shen,  who 
arrived  in  China  towards  the  end  of  fifth  century,  relates  : — 

"  '  The  kingdom  of  Fusang  lies  20,000  li  east  from  Tahan,  and 
directly  east  from  China.  The  name  of  the  country  is  derived 
from  the  tree  of  this  name  (Fusang),  which  grows  there  in 
abundance.  Its  leaves  resembles  those  of  the  tree  T'ung.  The 
young  sprouts  are  like  those  of  the  bamboo,  and  are  eaten.  The 
fruit  resembles  a  pear,  and  is  of  a  red  colour.  Cloth  is  made 
out  of  the  bark,  and  paper  is  also  prepared  from  it.  The  houses 
are  built  of  planks.  There  are  no  cities.  Arms  and  war  are 
unknown.  There  are  two  prisons  in  the  country  for  light  and 
confirmed  criminals.  Carts  drawn  by  horses  ;  oxen  or  stags  are 
employed.  The  deer  are  their  domestic  animals,  like  cows  in 
China.  A  fermented  drink  is  prepared  from  their  milk.  Mul 
berry-trees  exist,  and  red  pears,  which  can  be  preserved  for  a 
whole  year.  Grapes  thrive  also.  Silver  and  copper  have  no 
value  there.  There  is  no  iron,  but  plenty  of  copper.  They 
possess  writings.  The  inhabitants  of  Fusang  were  formerly 
ignorant  of  the  Buddhist  religion.  Five  priests  from  Ki-piu 


THE  LA  TEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.        169 

(Cabul)  went  there  in  458  A.D.,  and  carried  with  them  the  holy 
books  and  the  faith.'  I  pass  over  the  wonderful  descriptions 
which  Hui-shen  gives  of  the  customs,  clothing  of  the  sovereign, 
punishment,  &c.,  in  Fusang,  as  unessential,  for  I  believe  that  no 
conclusions  can  be  drawn  therefrom.  The  translation  of  these 
details  is  found  in  Klaproth's  'Annales  des  Empereurs  du 
Japon/  v. 

"  The  above  is  the  Chinese  intelligence  about  Fusang,  which 
sprang  out  of  the  fifth  century,  and,  I  believe,  the  only  informa 
tion  we  possess.  In  later  times,  the  Chinese  poets,  who  seem 
to  be  gifted  with  a  much  livelier  imagination  than  some  of  our 
savants,  have  further  developed  and  richly  embellished  those 
reports  with  regard  to  the  land  of  Fusang,  and  have  made  out  of 
it  a  complete  land  of  fables,  where  mulberry-trees  grow  to  a 
height  of  several  thousand  feet,  and  where  silk-worms  are  found 
more  than  six  feet  in  length.  The  statements  about  Fusang 
given  by  M.  Le"on  de  Rosny  in  his  '  Variety's  Orientales,'  from 
a  Japanese  Encyclopsedia,  are  probably  borrowed  from  the 
Chinese.  I  have  not,  however,  read  M.  Rosny's  work.  (Cf. 
Notes  and  Queries,  vol.  iv.  p.  19.) 1 

"In  order  to  place  the  credibility  of  the  Buddhist  priest 
Hui-shen  in  the  proper  light,  I  will  yet  mention  what  he 
further  relates  of  his  journeys.  He  asserts,  namely  (loco  citato), 
that  there  is  a  kingdom  1000  li  east  of  Fusang  in  which  are  no 
men,  but  only  women,  whose  bodies  are  completely  covered  with 
hair.  When  they  wish  to  become  pregnant,  they  bathe  them 
selves  in  a  certain  river.  The  women  have  no  mammae,  but 
tufts  of  hair  on  the  neck,  by  means  of  which  they  suckle  their 
children. 

"  Upon  these  vague  and  incredible  traditions  of  a  Buddhist 
monk,  several  European  savants  have  based  the  hypothesis  that 
the  Chinese  had  discovered  America  1300  years  ago.  Neverthe- 

1  M.  de  Rosny's  extract  from  the  Japanese  Cyclopaedia  is  simply  an 
abridgment  of  the  account  by  Hoei-shin. — C.  G.  L. 


i;o        THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

less,  it  appears  to  me  that  these  sinologues  have  not  succeeded  in 
robbing  Columbus  of  the  honour  of  having  discovered  America. 
They  might  have  spared  themselves  the  writing  of  such  learned 
treatises  on  this  subject.  It  appears  to  me  that  the  verdict 
passed  upon  the  value  of  the  information  of  the  Buddhist  monk 
Hui-shen  by  Father  Hyacinth  is  the  most  correct.  This  well- 
known  sinologue  adds  the  following  words  merely  after  the 
translation  of  the  article  '  Fusang  '  out  of  the  '  History  of  the 
Southern  Dynasties  : '  '  Hui-shen  appears  to  have  been  a  consum 
mate  humbug.'  (Cf.  'The  People  of  Central  Asia/  by  F.  Hyacinth.) 

"I  cannot,  indeed,  understand  what  ground  we  have  for  be 
lieving  that  Fusang  is  America.  We  cannot  lay  great  stress 
iipon  the  asserted  distance,  for  every  one  knows  how  liberal  the 
Chinese  are  with  numbers.  By  tamed  stags  we  can  at  all  events 
only  understand  reindeer.  But  these  are  found  as  frequently  in 
Asia  as  in  America.  Mention  is  also  made  of  horses  in  Fusang. 
This  does  not  agree  at  all  with  America,  for  it  is  well  known  that 
horses  were  first  brought  to  America  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Neumann  appears  to  base  his  hypothesis  on  the  assumption  that 
the  tree  Fusang  is  synonymous  with  the  Mexican  aloe.  Mr 
Sampson  has  already  refuted  this  error.  (Notes  and  Queries, 
vol.  iii.  p.  78.) 

"  According  to  the  description  and  drawings  of  the  tree 
Fusang  given  by  the  Chinese,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is 
a  Malvacea.  In  Peking,  the  Hibiscus  rosa  siniensis  is  designated 
by  this  name,  while  Hibiscus  syriacus  is  here  called  Mu-kin. 
These  names  seem  to  hold  good  for  the  Avhole  of  China.  The 
description  which  is  given  in  the  Pun-tsao-kang-mu  of  both 
plants  (xxxvi.  p.  G4  and  65)  admits  of  no  doubt  that  by  the  tree 
Fusang,  Chu-kin,  Chi-kin,  Ji-ki,  is  to  be  understood  Hibiscus 
rosa  siniensis.  It  is  also  mentioned  that  this  tree  has  a  likeness 
to  the  Mu-kin  (Hibiscus  syriacus).  Its  leaves  resemble  the 
mulberry-tree.  Very  good  drawings  of  both  kinds  of  Hibiscus 
are  found  in  the  Chi-wu-ming-shi-tu-k'ao  (xxxv.  pp.  58  and  34). 
The  Buddhist  priest  Hui-shen  compares  the  tree  Fusang  with  the 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.        171 

tree  Tung.  Under  tliis  name  the  Chinese  denote  different 
large-leaved  trees.  In  the  Chi-wu-ming-shi-tu-k'ao  (xxx.  p.  46), 
the  tree  T'ung  is  represented  with  broadly  ovate,  cordate,  entire 
great  leaves,  and  with  great  ovoid,  acuminate  fruits.  Hoffman 
and  Schultes  ('  Noms  indigenes  des  Plantes  du  Japon  et  de  la 
Chine  J)  have  set  down  the  tree  Tung  as  Paulownia  imperialis. 
This  agrees  quite  well  with  the  Chinese  drawing. 

"  The  tree  Tung  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Yu-t'ung 
tree  (synonyma  Ying-tsu-t'ung,  Jen-t'ung),  from  whose  fruit  is 
furnished  the  well-known  and  very  poisonous  oil,  Tdng-yj 
which  the  Chinese  employ  in  varnish  and  in  painting.  It  should 
be  the  Dryanda  cordata,  according  to  others  Elaeococca  veru- 
cosa.  I  have  not  seen  the  tree,  but  it  is  known  to  occur  very 
abundantly  in  Central  China,  and  especially  on  the  Yang-tse- 
kiang.  There  is  a  Chinese  description  in  the  Pun-tsao  (xxxv. 
p.  26),  and  a  drawing  of  it  in  the  Chi-wu-ming-shi-tu-k'ao 
(xxxv.  p.  26). 

"Finally,  there  is  a  tree  which  the  Chinese  call  "VVu-t'ung 
(synonyme  Chen).  This  tree  has  already  been  mentioned  by 
Du  Halde  ('  Description  de  1'Empire  Chinois '),  as  a  curiosity,  in 
which  the  seeds  are  found  on  the  edges  of  the  leaves.  This 
phenomenon  is  also  described  in  the  drawing  of  the  Chi-wu- 
ming-shi-tu-k'ao  (xxxv.  56).  Compare  further  the  description 
in  the  Pun-t'sao  (xxxv  a,  25).  It  is  the  Sterculia  plantanifoliat 
a  beautiful  tree  with  large  leaves,  lobed  so  as  to  resemble  a  hand, 
which  is  cultivated  in  the  Buddhist  temples  near  Peking.  The 
Chinese  are  quite  right  in  what  they  relate  about  the  seeds.  The 
seed-follicles  burst,  and  acquire  the  form  of  coriaceous  leaves, 
bearing  the  seeds  upon  their  margin. 

"  The  leaves  of  all  the  trees  just  now  mentioned  allow  them 
selves  to  be  compared,  as  is  done  by  the  Chinese,  with  those  of 
Hibiscus,  or  other  plants  of  the  Malvaceous  family,  but  have  not 
the  slightest  resemblance  with  the  Mexican  aloe  or  maguey  tree 
(Agave  americana),  which  has  massive,  spiny-toothed,  fleshy 
leaves.  Mr  Hanlay  (Chinese  Recorder,  vol.  ii.  p.  315),  of  San 


172        THE  LA  TEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

Francisco,  cannot,  therefore,  succeed  in  proving  that  the  Bud 
dhist  priest  Hui-shen  understood  by  Fusang  the  Mexican  aloe. 

"Finally,  I  have  to  mention  a  tree  which,  as  regards  its 
appearance  and  usefulness,  corresponds  pretty  much  with  the 
description  given  by  Hui-shen  of  the  Fusang-tree. ,'  I  am  speak 
ing  of  the  useful  tree  Broussonetia  papyrifera,  which  grows  wild 
in  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,"1  especially  in  China,  Japan,  Corea, 
Manchuria,  &c.,  and  is,  besides,  found  on  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  while,  as  far  as  I  know,  it  does  not  occur  in  Ame 
rica.  The  leaves  of  this  tree  are  remarkable  for  their  vary 
ing  very  much  in  shape.  The  same  tree  produces  at  once  very 
large  and  quite  small  leaves.  They  are  sometimes  entire,  some 
times  many-lobed.  The  fruit  is  round,  of  a  deep  scarlet  colour, 
and  pulpy.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that,  in  the  parts  where  this 
tree  grows,  its  bark  is  used  for  the  making  of  paper  and  the 
manufacturing  of  clothing  material.  From  ancient  times  it  has 
been  known  to  the  Chinese  under  the  name  Ch'u  (synonyma 
Kou,  KOU-SANG,  Kou-shu.  Cf.  Pun-t'sao-kang-mu,  xxxvi.  10). 
An  excellent  engraving  of  the  tree  is  found  in  the  Chi-wu-ming- 
shi-tu-k'ao  (xxxiii.  57).  Ilui-shen,  in  his  botanical  diagnosis, 
perhaps  made  a  mistake  with  regard  to  the  Fusang-tree,  and  con 
founded  Broussonetia  ivith  Hibiscus. 

"Just  as, little  as  the  Mexican  aloe  does  the  non-existence  of 
iron  in  the  country  Fusang  prove  that  America  is  to  be  under 
stood,  for  there  were  many  countries  in  ancient^imes  which 
possessed  copper,  but  where  the  art  of  working  iron  was  unknown. 
The  Chinese  report  also  that  the  natives  of  the  Leu-chew  Island 
did  not  possess  iron,  but  only  copper. 

"  Mr  Hanlay  (I.e.)  appears  to  have  received  the  discovery  of 
America  by  the  Chinese  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Perhaps 
I  have  furnished  him,  by  means  of  the  above  notice  about  the 
kingdom  of  women,  which  Hui-shen  visited,  a  new  proof  for  his 

1  Saghalien,  where  Mr  Bretsclmeider  would  put  Fusang,  can  hardly  be 
called  temperate.— C.  G.  L. 


THE  LA  TEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.        173 

view  of  the  case.  Fusang  lies,  according  to  Hui-shen,  directly 
east  from  China  more  than  20,000  li,  thus  about  the  situation 
of  San  Francisco  at  the  present  day.  The  celebrated  women's 
kingdom  lies  1000  li  still  further  towards  the  east,  thus  about 
the  country  of  Salt  Lake  City,  where,  at  the  present  day,  the 
Mormons  are,  which,  if  not  a  women's  country,  is  nevertheless  a 
country  of  many  women,  and  where — to  the  disgrace  of  the 
United  States — prostitution  is  carried  on  under  the  mask  of  the 
Christian  religion. 

"  I  do  not  agree  with  Mr  Sampson  (Notes  and  Queries,  vol'.  iii. 
p.  79)  in  supposing  that  Fusang  must  be  identified  with  Japan, 

ff  7JC  Ji-pen,  the  land  where  the  sun  rises ;  for  Japan  has  been 
ivell  known  to  the  Chinese  since  several  centuries  before,  our  era, 
under  another  name.  I  avail  myself  of  this  opportunity  to  add 
a  few  words  about  the  earliest  accounts  which  the  Chinese  have 
of  Japan.  This  country  was  primitively  known  to  them  under 
the  name  Wo,  which  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
the  posterior  Han,  25-221,  chapter  115.  I  cannot  afford  to 
give  here  a  translation  of  the  whole  article,  and  shall,  therefore, 
only  touch  upon  some  of  the  most  important  points.  The  king 
dom  Wo,  it  is  said,  is  situated  on  a  group  of  islands  in  the  great 
sea,  south-east  of  Han  (in  the  south-western  part  of  Corea),  and 
is  composed  of  about  a  hundred  principalities.  Since  the  con 
quest  of  Chas-sien  (Corea)  by  the  Emperor  Wu-ti,  108  B.C., 
about  thirty  of  these  principalities  entered  into  relations  with 
China.  The  most  powerful  of  the  rulers  has  his  capital  in  Ye- 
ma-t'ai.  It  is  mentioned  that  neither  tigers  and  leopards,  nor 
oxen,  horses,  sheep,  and  magpies  exist.  As  far  as  I  know,  this 
last  remark  is  not  true  at  present,  at  least,  as  far  as  horses  and 
oxen  are  concerned ;  it  is  true,  however,  that  sheep  cannot  thrive 
in  Japan,  and  the  attempts  of  Europeans  to  acclimatise  them 
have  been,  until  now,  unsuccessful. 

"  In  the  reign  of  Kuang-wu,  A.D.  25-58,  envoys  came  from 
the  Wo-nu  with  presents  to  the  Chinese  court.  They  stated 
that  their  country  was  the  southernmost  of  the  kingdom. 


174        THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

"  The  history  of  the  Sui  dynasty,  589-G18,  chapter  81,  gives 
also  the  name  Wo  to  Japan,  and  contains  an  extensive  article  on 
this  country.  The  chief  place  of  the  kingdom  is  called  here  Ye- 
mi-sui. 

"  The  name  Ji-pen  is  given  to  Japan  by  Chinese  historians, 
for  the  first  time,  towards  the  end  of  the  seventh  century.  I 
entertained  until  now  the  opinion  that  the  Japanese,  who,  as 
everybody  knows,  use  these  same  signs  for  the  name  of  their 
country,  but  pronounce  them  Ni-pon,  had  borrowed  this  name, 
together  with  the  art  of  writing,  from  China.  (Chinese  writing- 
was  introduced  into  Japan  A.D.  280  ;  Buddhism,  A.D.  552.)  (Cf. 
Klaproth,  'Annales  des  Empereurs  du  Japon,' ix.  and  p.  20.) 
For  Japan  could  appear  only  to  the  Chinese  (or  any  other  people 
on  the  continent  of  Asia)  as  the  country  where  the  sun  rises. 
This,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case,  according  to  infor 
mation  derived  from  Chinese  sources.  In  the  history  of  the 
Tang  dynasty,  G1S-907,  chapter  259  «,  Japan  is  at  first  described 
under  the  ancient  name  Wo.  Then  follows  the  description  of 
the  kingdom  Ji-pen,  of  which  the  following  is  said  : — '  Ji-pen  is 
of  the  same  origin  as  Wo.  It  lies  on  the  boundaries  of  the  sun, 
therefore  the  name.'  It  is  also  related  that  the  name  Wo  was 
changed  .by  the  Japanese,  for  the  reason  that  they  found  it  in 
harmonious  ;  others  say  that  Ji-pen  was  formerly  a  small  state, 
and  that  Wo,  in  later  times,  was  incorporated  in  Ji-pen.  The 
people  who  came  from  Ji-pen  to  the  court  boasted  of  the  power 
of  their  country,  but  the  Chinese  did  not  put  faith  in  their 
words.  They  told  that  this  kingdom  extended  1000  II  in  all 
directions,  and  that  it  was  bordered  on  the  west  and  south  bv 
the  great  sea,  and  on  the  north  and  east  by  high  mountains. 
Beyond  the  mountains  live  the  Mas-jen,  the  hairy  men.  This, 
beyond  doubt,  refers  to  the  Amos,  well  known  for  being  hairy  in 
appearance. 

"  The  above  information  removes  all  doubts  as  to  the  Japanese 
origin  of  the  name  Ji-pen,  and  the  use  of  it  at  first  for  the  desig 
nation  of  the  largest  of  the  islands,  and  afterwards  as  the  name 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OP  FUSANG.        175 

of  the  whole  empire.  Ye-ma-t'ai,  as  the  Chinese  called  the  chief 
town  of  Japan,  seems  to  designate  the  province  Yamato,  in  which 
the  emperors  had  their  residence  in  ancient  times.  It  is  difficult 
to  say  anything  of  the  origin  of  the  name  Wo.  It  is  probable 
that  the  Chinese  invented  it,  and  that  the  Japanese  afterwards 
adopted  it.  I  find  in  a  Japanese  historical  map  of  Japan  the 

characters  r^'®  as  designating  the  province  Yamato.  This 
province  is  designated  by  these  characters  on  all  the  historical 
maps  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  whereas  on  the 

modern  maps  that  province  is  called   -^^  ^tTj  Talio. 

"  Allow  me  to  observe  also,  in  relation  to  the  above-mentioned 
history  of  the  posterior  Han,  a  Nu-wang-kuo,  a  country  of  women, 
is  spoken  of  in  the  southern  part  of  Japan.  This  statement  is 
confirmed  by  the  Japanese  annals.  (Cf.  Klaproth,  '  Annales  des 
Empereurs  du  Japon,'  p.  13.)  The  Japanese  call  this  country 
Atsowma. 

"  The  land  Tahan,  according  to  the  foregoing  observations, 
must  have  been  a  province  in  Siberia.  Fusang  is  said  to  lie  to 
the  east  of  Tahan.  Supposing,  then,  that  a  country,  Fusang, 
really  existed,  and  was  not  an  invention  of  a  Buddhist  monk,  it 
does  not  necessarily  follow  that  it  is  to  be  sought  on  the  other 
side  of  the  ocean.  Let  me  here  observe,  that  this  monk  men 
tions  in  no  place  in  his  account  having  passed  over  a  great  sea. 
Klaproth,  in  assuming  that  Fusang  is  meant  for  the  island  of 
Saghalien,  is,  I  believe,  more  near  to  the  truth  than  the  other 
sinologues. 

"  In  Notes  and  Queries  (vol.  iv.  p.  19)  there  is  a  passage  cited 
out  of  the  Liang-ssu-kung-ki,  that  the  kingdom  of  Fusang  had 
sent  envoys  to  China.  That  would,  of  course,  prove  that  the  so- 
called  country  of  Fusang  had  political  intercourse  with  China, 
but  it  makes  it  more  unlikely  that  America  was  here  meant.  We 
will,  therefore,  in  the  meantime,  still  consider  Fusang  as  a  terra 
incognita  nee  non  dubia,  and  bestow  upon  Mr  Buiiinghame  the 
double  honour  of  having  been  the  first  American  Ambassador  at 
the  Chinese  court,  and  first  Chinese  Ambassador  in  America. 


176        THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

"  The  contradictory  fancies  about  China  that  originate  in  the 
brains  of  European  literati  are  truly  astonishing.  Some  main 
tain  that  the  Chinese  discovered  America  1300  years  ago,  while 
a  well-known  learned  Frenchman,  Count  Gobineau,  has  some 
years  ago  asserted  that  the  Chinese  have  immigrated  from 
America.  In  his  '  Essai  sur  I'Ine'galite'  des  Races  Humaines,'  vol. 
ii.  p.  242,  Count  Gobineau  says  :— (D'ou  venaient  ces  peuples 
jaunes  ?  Du  grand  continent  d'Ame"rique.  C'est  la  rdponse  de 
la  physiologic  comme  de  la  linguistique.' 

"  All  these  unfounded  hypotheses  have  much  the  same  value 
as  the  supposed  discovery  of  America  by  the  Chinese. 

"PEKIN,  13th  June  1870." 

As  a  Chinese  scholar,  familiar  with  the  histories  -of 
the  country,  and  as  a  resident  in  Pekin  at  the  time  of 
writing  the  foregoing  letter,  Dr  Bretschneider  is  en 
titled  to  an  examination  in  detail.  Beyond  all  doubt, 
no  writer  whatever  on  the  subject  of  Fusang,  whether 
Deguignes,  Neumann,  or  D'Eichthal,  has  expressed  him 
self  so  positively  on  the  question.  A  true  disciple  of 
the  learned  Klaproth,  he  with  great  ingenuity  directs 
his  chief  energies  less  to  the  subject  of  dispute  than  to 
impugning  the  honesty  or  sense  of  his  opponents. 

In  the  beginning,  Dr  Bretschneider  disposes  of  all 
that  Deguignes  alleges,  by  declaring  that  "  Klaproth 
has  already  pointed  out  the  mistakes  into  which  the 
latter  has  fallen."  By  this  effective  summary,  those 
who  have  not  read  Deguignes  and  Klaproth  are  fully 
informed  in  a  few  words  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
argument — as  it  appeared  to  Dr  Bretschneider  ;  and  as 
he  had  not  read  Professor  Neumann's  or  other  works  on 


THE  LA  TEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.        177 

the  subject,  he  is,  of  course,  relieved  from  the  awkward 
responsibility  of  answering  many  statements  which 
would  perhaps  have  interfered  with  his  own  theories. 
As  he  makes  no  mention,  indeed,  of  M.  Gustave 
d'Eichthal,  we  must  conclude  that  he  either  had  never 
heard  of  the  articles  which  had  appeared  several  years 
before  in  the  Rdme  Archceologique,  or  passed  them  by  as 
trifles  unworthy  his  attention. 

"  The  Chinese  notices  of  Fusang,"  says  Dr  Bret- 
schneider,  "  are  all  derived  from  the  same  source,  and 
each  and  all  rest  upon  the  statements  of  a  lying 
Buddhist  priest."  He  does  not  deny,  or  he  rather 
admits  plainly,  that  the  steps  towards  Fusang  are  laid 
down  faithfully  enough  until  we  reach  Tahan.  Ko  one, 
indeed,  can  well  deny  this  who  has  read  Deguignes 
with  any  care.  But  the  credibility  of  Hoei-shin  is 
utterly  destroyed,  according  to  Dr  Bretschneider, 
firstly,  by  the  stories  embroidered  by  Chinese  poets  on 
his  narrative  hundreds  of  years  after  the  monk  was  in 
his  grave,  and,  secondly,  by  the  story  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Women. 

I  have  already  observed  that  Hoei-shin  says  nothing 
of  having  visited  this  Kingdom  of  Women,  but  speaks 
of  it  as  being  a  thousand  li  east  of  Fusang.  In  our 
day,  it  is  no  longer  the  fashion  to  utterly  discredit  the 
older  travellers  because  they  gilded  and  illuminated 
their  texts  with  arabesque  marvels,  especialty  when 
they  only  told  the  tales  as  they  were  told  to  them. 
Judged  by  such  a  standard,  all  the  travels  of  Buddhist 

It 


I78         THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

monks  to  the  West  must  be  entirely  thrown  out  of 
history,  Herodotus  set  down  as  the  father  of  lies,  and 
every  one  of  the  Old  World  pilgrims  discredited  with 
him,  In  fact,  the  falsus  in  uno  falsus  in  omnibus 
ground  no  longer  obtains  in  criticism,  and  allow 
ance  is  now  made  for  the  simple  credulity  of  twilight 
times.  Scholars  do  not  usually  announce  their  per 
sonal  opinions  as  overwhelming  arguments,  or  call 
names,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  man  of  Dr 
Bretsclmeider's  erudition  should  have  informed  the 
sinologues  who  differ  with  him  that  a  they  might  have 
spared  themselves  the  trouble  of  writing  such  learned 
treatises  on  this  subject."  That  he  likes  this  method 
of  argument  by  inspiration  spiced  with  personality 
appears  from  his  evident  admiration  of  Father  Hya 
cinth,  who,  as  he  tells  us,  merely  added  to  the  article 
"  Fusang  "  the  following  words — "  Hui-shen  appears  to 
have  been  a  consummate  humbug." 

Dr  Bretsclmeider  adduces  the  story  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Women  as  a  reason  for  discrediting  Hoei-shin.  Yet, 
when  it  strengthens  his  own  position,  he  informs  us  that 
a  country  of  women  was  believed  to  exist  in  Southern 
Japan. 

"  Neumann,"  says  Dr  Bretsclmeider,  "  appears  to 
base  his  hypothesis  on  the  assumption  that  the  tree 
.Fusang  is  synonymous  with  the  American  aloe."  As 
he  confessedly  had  not  read  Professor  Neumann's  work, 
it  was  hardly  fair  to  judge  by  hearsay,  or  to  inform 
his  public  (even  under  the  shield  of  an  "  appears  ") 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.        179 

what  Neumann's  "  hypothesis  "  was.  The  reader  of 
these  pages  is  aware  that  Professor  Neumann  by  no 
means  based  his  belief  in  Hoei-shin's  narrative  simply 
on  the  maguey  plant.  "  Mr  Sampson,"  says  Dr  Bret- 
sehn eider,  "  has  already  refuted  this  error."  Mr  Sim- 
son  had,  it  is  true,  fully  proved  that  Hoei-shin  gave  to 
the  maguey  a  name  not  now  applicable  to  the  Chinese 
plants  which  bear  it.  But  neither  Mr  Simsou  nor 
Dr  Bretschneider  disproves  the  main  fact — that  Hoei- 
shin  described  a  very  singular  Mexican  plant  not 
known  in  Asia.  The  pictures  which  have  been  made 
by  Chinese  botanists  since  the  fifth  century  are  very 
little  to  the  purpose.  It  seems  to  have  escaped  the  notice 
of  all  writers  that  Hoei-shin,  while  he  calls  the  tree  a 
Fusang,  says  it  resembles  the  T'ung,1  a  very  different 
plant,  the  leaves  of  which,  though  in  other  respects  un 
like  those  of  the  maguey,  are  large.  This  indicates  that 
by  the  word  Fusang  we  are  to  understand  some  Ameri 
can  term,  which  to  the  Chinese  sounded  like  one  alrea  ly 
familiar  to  them.  And  it  is  remarkable  that  one  point 
— and  that,  indeed,  the  principal  one  in  the  Fusaug  con 
troversy — has  been  overlooked  by  every  writer  on  the 
subject,  from  Deguignes  to  Bretschneider,  which  is,  that 
Hoei-shin, while  he  calls  the  tree  a  Fusang,  states  that  its 

1  A  cactus  in  ancient  Mexican  was  called  tuna,  and  the  Ccic'cs  globosce 
bears  the  name  of  visnago  (vide  Berthold  Seeman's  "Die  Volksnamen  der 
Amerikanischen  Pflanzen,"  or  " Popular  jSTames  of  the  Plants  of  America  "); 
but  I  have  not  been  able  to  learn  that  there  is  any  old  Mexican  name  for 
the  maguey  in  the  least  resembling  Fusang.  Inquiry  might  be  made 
among  the  Pueblos. 


i So         THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

leaves  resemble  those  of  another  plant,  and  its  sprouts 
those  of  yet  another.  It  is  not  remarkable  that,  with  these 
qualifications  left  out  of  sight,  neither  Mr  Simson  nor 
Dr  Bretschneider  could  find  the  mysterious  plant  among 
the  Fusang-trees  of  China.  Nothing  can  be  more  plain 
than  that,  while  giving  to  the  American  plant  a  name  like 
that  of  one  in  China,  the  monk  by  no  means  meant  the 
latter.  "  The  sprouts,"  he  says,  "  on  the  contrary, 
resemble  those  of  the  bamboo-tree."  Yet  in  the  face 
of  this  statement,  Mr  Simson  and  Dr  Bretschneider 
assert,  as  if  it  were  an  argument,  that  the  maguey  plant 
is  not  the  Fusang — when  the  monk  had  taken  pains  to 
say  the  same  thing,  and  even  to  emphasise  his  denial. 
But,  as  a  concluding  paragraph  on  this  subject,  Dr 
Bretschneider  informs  us  that  there  is  a  Chinese  tree — 
not  the  Fusang  but  Kousang — which  strikingly  resem 
bles  it,  and  then  naively  remarks  that  this  was  per 
haps  the  one  seen  by  Hoei-shin.  The  correction  will 
be  cheerfully  admitted  by  all  who  believe  it  possible 
that  the  Buddhist  monk  was  in  America ;  and  I  avail 
myself  of  the  opportunity  to  declare  that  Dr  Bret 
schneider,  whatever  his  peculiarities  of  criticism  may 
be,  is  undoubtedly  a  good  sinologist,  and  deeply  learned 
in  Chinese  botany,  and  that  his  learning  has,  in  this 
respect,  done  much  for  the  cause  of  Hoei-shin,  while  his 
arguments  pro  contra  have  not  injured  it  in  the  least. 
Hoei-shin  in  all  likelihood  did  make  a  mistake  in  con 
founding  Broussonetia  with  Hibiscus  ;  but  so  that  there 
is  in  China  a  Kousang,  very  much  resembling  what  the 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSAXG.         181 

monk  chose  to  call  Fusang,  we  can  ask  no  more.  Dr 
Bretschneider  honestly  admits  that  Hoei-shin  saw  in 
Mexico  a  plant  to  which  he  gave  a  wrong  name,  and 
corrects  this  error.  To  an  unprejudiced  critic  these 
botanical  blunders  of  the  old  monk,  obscured  in  all 
probability  by  provincial  terms  and  errors  of  copyists, 
so  far  from  invalidating  the  main  facts,  actually  confirm 
them ;  and  in  this  instance,  where  Dr  Bretschneider  is 
inspired  by  positive  science,  he  makes  an  admission 
favourable  to  the  credibility  of  Hoei-shin. 

It  is,  however,  strange  that  so  learned  a  man  should 
assert  that  because  there  were  in  ancient  times  many 
other    countries    where    iron   was    unknown,    therefore 
Hoei-shin's  observation  that  it  was  not  used  in  Fusang 
must  go  for  nothing.    Iron  was  known  to  all  the  civilised 
countries  with  which  Hoei-shin  was  acquainted — what 
his  ideas  of  Lew-chew  were  we  cannot  ascertain — and 
when  he  found  in  Fusang  an  apparently  civilised  race 
without  iron,  and  not  using  gold  or  copper  for  money  ^  he 
naturally  recorded  these  peculiarities.     It  is  remarkable 
that  this  was  the  case  in  Mexico.     Four  statements  are 
here  made — one  relative  to  a  plant,  and  three  to  metals 
—all  of  them  true  as  regards  America,  and  not  one  of 
them  confirmed   as  regards  China  or  India  in  the  fifth 
century.     According   to  Dr  Bretschneider's  argument, 
the  most  accurate  account  of  the  inhabitants  of  America, 
and  their  customs,  must  be  set  down  as  proving  nothing, 
whenever  anything  similar  can  be  proved  of  other  coun 
tries  in  ancient  times. 


i82         THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

Dr  Bretsclineider  states  that  Hoei-shin  declares  lie 
visited  the  Kingdom  of  Women  ;  but,  as  I  have  already 
shown,  the  monk  uses  the  term  "it  is  said"  with 
reference  to  the  great  marvel  of  this  country — the  ex 
traordinary  manner  of  suckling  the  children — which  he 
would  not  have  done  had  he  witnessed  it.  And  here 
we  are  again  indebted  to  Dr  Bretsclineider  for  another 
inadvertent,  yet  most  important,  admission.  For,  as 
he  declares,  Fusang  lies — according  to  Hoei-shin— 
more  than  20,000  li  directly  east  from  China,  about  the 
situation  of  San  Francisco;  and  that  the  Women's  King 
dom,  if  it  existed,  must  have  been  where  the  Mormons 
now  dwell.  Now  the  question  on  which  the  whole 
turns  is  really  this,  and  nothing  more : — Did  Hoei- 
shin  mean  that  there  was  a  country  on  the  spot  where, 
as  is  now  known,  land  exists  ?  The  monk  had  a  perfect 
right  to  state  his  distances,  and  here  Dr  Bretschneider 
clearly  admits  that  the  distance  was  accurately  esti 
mated.  It  may  be  remarked,  by  the  way,  that  pros 
titution  has  literally  no  existence  in  Utah,  being 
vigorously  repressed  by  the  Mormons,  and  that  our 
author  has  evidently  been  strangely  misinformed  as  to 
the  country.  It  is  carried  on,  he  says,  under  the  mask 
of  the  Christian  religion,  an  assertion  which  would  be 
perfectly  true  if  applied  to  Berlin  or  Paris,  or  in  fact  to 
any  German  or  French  city  where  it  is  legalised  by  the 
Government,  but  which  cannot  be  said  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  and  least  of  all  of  Utah,  where  the 
people  are  not  Christians  at  all.  It  would  be  insultin^ 


THE  LA  TEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.         183 

to  a  scholar  like  Dr  Bretsclmeider  to  insinuate  that  he 
does  not  know  the  difference  between  prostitution  and 
polygamy.  I  prefer  to  believe  that  he  wrote  under  a 
misapprehension  of  Mormon  institutions.  If,  however, 
we  are  to  understand  from  Dr  Bretschueider's  text  that 
he  alludes  to  the  American  Government  as  wearing  a 
mask  of  the  Christian  religion,  I  would  say,  as  an 
American,  firstly,  that  the  expression  is  needlessly 
offensive ;  and  secondly,  that  as  there  is  no  connection 
whatever  in  the  United  States  between  Church  and 
State,  it  is  devoid  of  truth. 

"  Klaproth,"  says  Dr  Bretsclmeider,  "  in  assuming 
that  Fusang  is  meant  for  the  Island  of  Saghalien,  is,  I 
believe,  more  near  to  the  truth  than  the  other  sino 
logues."  What  then  becomes  of  the  perplexing  Coun 
try  of  Women — but  just  now  in  Utah,  and  at  another 
time  in  Japan  ?  If  anybody's  statements  and  measure 
ments  are  to  be  accepted,  they  are  certainly  those  of 
Hoei-shin  himself,  and  they  are  plain  enough — "  Twenty 
thousand  li  east  of  Tahan "  —Tahan  being  plainly 
Siberia,  as  Dr  Bretsclmeider  admits,  when  he  finds  it 
convenient  to  do  so,  for  the  sake  of  a  bitter  word 
against  America. 

A  passage  cited  from  an  old  Chinese  chronicle  asserts 
that  envoys  once  went  from  Fusang  to  China.  This, 
Dr  Bretschneider  allows,  would  prove  that  Fusang 
had  intercourse  with  the  Celestial  Kingdom,  "  but," 
as  he  declares,  "  makes  it  still  more  unlikely  that 
America  was  here  meant."  In  explanation,  I  will 


1 84         THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 


cite  the  passage  as  given  in  the  "  Notes  and  Queries  fur 
China  and  Japan." 

"  The  '  Liang-sze-kung-ki '  says  that  envoys  from  Fu- 
sang  brought  as  tribute  '  gems  for  observing  the  sun/ 
like  square  and  circular  mirrors,  more  than  a  foot  in 
circumference,  and  transparent  like  glass.  Looking  at 
the  reflection  of  the  sun  in  them,  one  could  see  very 
distinctly  and  brigjitly  the  palace  in  the  sun." 

This  refers  distinctly  enough  to  something  very  like 
those  curious  metallic  mirrors  made  in  China,  and 
common  even  in  London,  by  means  of  which  characters 
or  pictures  on  the  back  are  seen  by  reflecting  the  sun's 
rays  on  the  wall.  But  in  any  case,  if  such  mirrors 
were  ever  brought  to  China,  they  were  much  more  likely 
to  have  come  from  sun-worshipping  Mexico,  where 
metal  and  other  work  was  made  with  great  ingenuity, 
than  from  Siberia,  or  even  from  Japan  itself  at  that 
time.  But  it  is  still  utterly  incomprehensible  why 
the  proving  that  Fusang  sent  ambassadors  to  China 

1  The  ancient  Peruvians  are  said  by  Prescott  to  have  relighted  their 
sacred  fire  when  it  was  extinguished  by  means  of  a  concave  mirror  of 
polished  metal.  This  connection  between  mirrors  and  the  sun,  whether 
Chinese  or  Peruvian,  is  at  least  curious.  Not  only  Peruvians,  but  many 
of  the  North  American  nations,  preserved  a  sacred  fire — in  fact,  the  Pue 
blos  of  New  Mexico  still  keep  one  burning,  and  it  is  not  many  years  since 
the  Chippeways  extinguished  theirs.  I  have  in  my  possession  a  common 
burning-glass,  which  I  once  dug  out  of  an  old  Chippeway  grave  ;  and  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  burning-glasses,  which  were  in  great  demand  from  the 
traders  by  the  Chippeways  while  they  worshipped  the  sacred  fire,  are 
now  no  longer  called  for.  This  is  not  owing  to  the  introduction  of 
matches,  for  (as  is  proved  by  the  contents  of  several  tobacco-bags  in  my 
possession)  the  Chippeways  generally  use  flint  and  steel  to  obtain  a  light. 
— C.  G.  L. 


THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.        185 

should  (t  make  it  still  more  unlikely  that  America  is  here 
meant."  There  is  no  reason  to  arbitrarily  assume  that 
ambassadors  could  not  come  from  America.  But  Dr 
Bretschneider  treats  this  as  his  most  conclusiv.e  argu 
ment  ;  indeed,  as  the  only  conclusive  one,  since  he 
immediately  declares,  "  We  will  therefore  still  consider 
Fusang  as  a  terra  incognita  nee  non  dubia" 

In  brief,  Dr  Bretschneider  asserts  -that  there  was  no 
Fusang,  it  being  all  the  invention  of  a  lying  priest 
— but  that  it  was  in  Siberia.  There  was  never 
any  such  place,  but  still  Mr  Simson  is  wrong  in 
placing  it  in  Japan,  and  Klaproth  is  right  in  declaring 
it  was  at  Saghalien.  There  was  no  Fusang-tree  either, 
but  the  monk  who  saw  it  meant  the  JT0z*-sang,  describ 
ing  more  accurately,  however,  a  Mexican  plant.  Klap 
roth  refuted  Deguignes  and  exposed  his  errors  by  proving 
that  Fusang  was  also  in  Japan ;  only  in  Dr  Bretschn ei 
der's  opinion  it  was  elsewhere.  And  it  is  certainly 
curious  that  the  writers  who  utterly  discredit  the  very 
existence  of  Fusang,  and  all  that  is  said  of  it,  have 
each  a  theory  as  to  where  it  really  was. 

To  verify  history  is  the  chief  object  of  scholarship, 
just  as  to  investigate  Nature  is  the  aim  of  science. 
Every  year  sees  the  former  more  guided  by  the  latter, 
and  it  is  well  that  it  should  be  so,  even  as  it  is  well 
that  parents  who,  as  they  grow  old,  look  more  and  more 
into  the  past,  should  be  tenderly  guarded  by  their  vigor 
ous  children.  To  prove  who  first  from  the  Old  World 
explored  the  New  is  no  trifling  problem  in  history,  and 


1 86        THE  LATEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG. 

I  am  well  assured  that  the  investigation  of  the  record 
of  Hoei-shin  will  by  no  means  rest  where  it  is.  What 
we  want  is  not  to  establish  a  favourite  fancy,  but  to 
ascertain  the  truth.  It  does  not  appear  to  many  people, 
whose  opinions  are  entitled  to  respect,  that  the  story  of 
Hoei-shin  is  settled.  Liars — above  all,  lying  travellers — 
are  never  brief,  and  had  Hoei-shin  been  "  a  consummate 
humbug,"  he  would  have  hardly  left  such  a  concise 
narrative  as  is  given  in  the  Annals.  Time  will  proba 
bly  show  whether  these  Buddhist  monks  ever  existed, 
and  whether  they  ever  were  in  America — 

"  The  truth,  which  long  in  darkness  lay, 
Will  come  with  clearness  to  the  day." 

And  if  their  story  be  proved  a  misrepresentation,  or 
a  myth  founded  on  some  old  fable,  we  may  at  least  get 
from  the  inquiry  set  afoot  a  clue  to  its  source,  and 
hints,  or  perhaps  solid  information,  as  to  the  great 
mystery  of  the  early  settlement  of  America.  We  are 
still  groping  in  darkness  as  regards  the  past:  the 
wonderful  discoveries  of  the  last  fifty  years  may  well 
teach  us  this. 

It  is  the  impulsive — it  may  be  the  credulous — spirit, 
loving  marvels  and  novelty,  which  awakes  these  re 
searches,  and  the  negative,  doubting,  and  incredulous 
inquiry  which  tests  them.  I  trust  that  in  this  book 
both  the  believers  and  disbelievers  in  Hoei-shin's  nar 
rative  have  been  honestly  represented.  If  I  have 
inadvertently  spoken  harshly  of  Klaproth  and  his  dis 
ciple  Bretschueider,  I  can  only  say  that  my  severest 


THE  LA  TEST  DISCUSSION  OF  FUSANG.         187 

words  are  like  flattery  itself  compared  to  what  others 
have  said  in  print  of  both  these  scholars.  As  it  is,  I 
cannot  resist  the  honest  conviction  that  both  have,  by 
their  opposition,  kept  the  question  from  subsiding  into 
oblivion,  and  unwittingly  brought  forth,  if  not  positive 
proofs,  at  least  a  mass  of  probabilities  in  favour  of 
Hoei-shin  before  which  their  opposition  was  trifling. 

The  truth  is,  that  the  vindication  of  Hoei-shin  is  of 
little  importance  in  itself  compared  to  what  lies  behind 
it  and  what  it  may  lead  to.  I  refer  to  those  early  ages 
peopled  by  strange  and  cloudy  forms — ages  not  without 
gleams  of  barbaric  splendour — hinted  at  in  the  account 
of  the  embassies  bearing  mirrors  in  which  could  be  seen 
"  the  palace  of  the  sun  " — perhaps  that  very  Palace  of 
the  Sun  itself  known  so  well  to  the  Mexicans.  Should 
the  investigation  lead  to  anything  positive  relative  to 
the  early  settlement  of  America,  and  to  the  action  or 
reaction  of  the  Old  World  and  the  New,  the  little  jour 
nal  of  the  humble  priest,  who  did  not  even  claim  to  be 
the  first  from  beyond  sea  whose  footsteps  had  fallen  in 
the  Golden  Land  of  Fusang,  may  well  be  allowed  to 
pass  into  oblivion,  if  nothing  more  occurs  to  confirm  its 
authenticity. 


APPENDIX. 


IN  the  text  of  Professor  Neumann's  work,  there  is  an  extract 
from  the  NippontJci,  or  Japanese  Annals  (from  661  until  696), 
relative  to  the  Ainos,  or  inhabitants  of  Jeso.  As  anything  con 
cerning  these  inter-continental  races  is  of  interest  in  connection 
with  the  subject  of  this  work,  especially  when  it  refers  to  any 
possible  affinity  between  America  and  Asia,  I  append  the  fol 
lowing  from  the  London  Times  (Xov.  1874) : — 

THE  AINOS  OF  JAPAN. — Mr  De  Long,  lately  United  States  Minis 
ter  in  Japan,  made  the  following  statement  in  his  lecture  at  Sacra 
mento  :  — "  The  Japanese  estimate  their  population  at  about 
40,000,000.  This  I  think  an  over-estimate  by  from  10,000,000  to 
15,COO,000,  although  their  reckoning  is  supported  by  their  census 
returns.  There  is  found  inhabiting  the  island  of  Jeso  and  the 
Kurile  Islands  a  race  of  men  called  by  the  Japanese  l  Ainos/  or 
1  hairy  men.'  This  appellation  they  well  sustain,  as  they  have  full, 
flowing,  black  beards,  reaching,  in  many  cases,  below  the  middle  of 
the  breast.  We  are  told  that  they  are  the  aborigines  of  Japan,  ori 
ginally  occupying  all  of  the  islands  embraced  in  that  group  ;  and 
Japanese  history  records  the  fact  that  Jimoo  Tenno,  the  first  Japa 
nese  emperor,  with  some  followers,  came  from  heaven  in  a  boat, 
landed  at  or  near  Nagasaki,  on  the  Island  of  Sikoke,  from  whom 
sprang  the  present  Japanese  nation  ;  that  gradually  they  beat  back 
and  destroyed  the  Aino  race,- as  we  have  done  the  Indian,  until  the 
nation  attained  its  present  greatness,  and  the  aborigines  sank  to 
their  present  weak  condition.  This  is  all  the  Japanese  know  of  their 
origin  and  their  race.  Nothing  interests  their  leading  men  more 
than  a  study  of  their  probable  origin,  as  they  treat  with  levity  the 


1 90  APPENDIX. 


legend  recorded  in  their  country.  The  embassy  which  accompanied 
me  to  Washington  brought  with  them  a  large  collection  of  stone 
beads,  arrow-heads,  and  other  evidences  of  the  stone  age.  These 
they  brought  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  them  with  similar  relics 
found  in  our  own  and  other  countries.  The  embassy  studied  with 
great  regard  such  Indians  as  we  met,  and  such  relics  as  could  be  found 
at  Salt  Lake  City  and  other  places.  Iwakura  assured  me  that  the 
appearance  of  our  Indians,  their  dress,  costume,  and  weapons,  were 
identical  with  such  ornamentation  as  their  geologists  had  discovered 
upon  rude  images  marking  the  stone  age  in  Japan  ;  and  he  further 
remarked  to  me  that  he  would  be  almost  prepared  to  believe  they 
were  akin,  but  for  the  circumstance  that  our  Indians  could  not  be 
civilised.  The  Ainos  form,  in  my  mind,  a  curious  subject  of  reflec 
tion.  They  seem  to  bear  no  relation  in  customs,  language,  or 
appearance  to  either  the  Japanese,  Chinese,  Manchoos,  or  othei 
Oriental  nations.  They  are  extremely  kind,  mild-mannered,  skilful 
as  hunters  and  fishermen,  intelligent,  and  brave.  Crime  is  almost 
unknown  among  them,  yet  they  are  so  completely  savage  or  bar 
barous  that  they  have  no  idea  of  their  origin,  no  mode  of  reckoning 
time,  no  knowledge  of  the  value  of  money,  nor  even  proper  names. 
They  call  their  children  '  One,'  '  Two,'  '  Three,'  &c.  Their  mode  of 
saluting  a  superior  is  to  sit  down  upon  the  earth  cross-legged,  bow 
the  head,  and,  placing  their  hands  together  with  the  palms  upward, 
raise  them  three  times  toward  their  faces,  as  if  in  the  act  of  casting 
dust  or  water  upon  themselves,  after  which  they  complacently  stroke 
their  long  black  beards  with  both  hands  three  times.  This  mode  of 
salutation,  I  believe,  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
while  the  beard  and  physiognomy  of  the  people,  in  my  mind, 
strongly  resemble  that  nation.  Ancient  mining  works  of  a  very 
extensive  character  are  found  upon  the  island  of  Jeso,  where  these 
people  live,  and  are  mentioned  by  Professor  Pompelly,  who  resided 
there  for  a  period,  while  in  the  service  of  the  Japanese,  in  his  work 
entitled  <  A  Tour  Around  the  World.' " 

This  interest  of  the  Japanese  in  early  America,  and  their  belief 
that  their  ancestors  had  something  in  common  with  it,  is  possibly 
more  deeply  seated  than  Europeans  are  aware  of.  In  his  "  New 
Japan,"  Mr  Samuel  Mossman,  author  of  "  China  and  its  His 
tory,"  &c.,  writes  as  follows  on  this  subject :  — 


APPENDIX. 


191 


"  There  is  evidence  to  show  that  some  of  the  early  Japanese 
navigators,  driven  by  the  terrible  typhoons  that  sweep  over  their 
waters,  had  entered  the  great  North  Pacific  drift  current  flowing  to 
the  east — as  observed  by  Krusenstern  and  Kotzebue — and  reached 
the  coasts  of  California  and  Mexico.  They  could  not  return 
again  to  their  native  land  against  the  current,  so  those  involun 
tary  explorers  were  in  all  probability  the  founders  of  the  Mexican 
dynasties,  of  which  the  famous  Montezuma  was  among  the  last 
monarchs.  When  Cortes  arrived  in  Mexico,  he  was  received  by 
the  king  and  his  sages  as  one  whom  they  expected  from  the  land 
of  their  ancestors  in  the  far  distant  west.  Hence  it  may  be  said 
that  the  Japanese  were  the  first  discoverers  and  founders  of 
America.  Even  at  this  day,  the  remnants  of  the  aboriginal  races 
of  California  and  Mexico  have  been  recognised  by  intelligent 
natives  from  Japan  as  descendants  of  their  ancestors,  whose  boats 
had  been  carried  by  currents  or  driven  by  tempests  from  their 
native  shores." 

This  is  an  interesting  subject,  and  I  regret  that  more  conclu 
sive  proofs  than  those  hinted  at  by  Mr  Mossman  cannot  be  given. 
As  the  Japanese  are,  however,  intelligent  scholars,  it  is  to  be 
Loped  that  among  their  traditions  or  literature  something  may 
be  found  confirming  the  belief  that  their  ancestors  carried  civili 
sation  to  America. 

It  has  been  recently  discovered  that  the  Indians  of  Aliaska, 
until  within  a  century,  made  mummies  of  their  dead,  and 
deposited  them  with  arms  and  carved  work  in  caves  which  were 
carefully  closed.  Should  it  ever  be  found  that  this  custom  pre 
vails,  or  ever  did  prevail,  among  the  Ainos,  it  would  be  another 
presumptive  link  not  without  value  towards  establishing  the 
chain  of  evidence  referring  to  the  ancient  union  of  the  Old  World 
with  the  New. 


Since  these  chapters  went  to  press,  I  have  conversed  with  a 
gentleman  holding  the  rank  of  General  in  the  United  States 
regular  army,  who  has  not  only  passed  many  years  in  active 


I92  APPENDIX. 


intercourse  with,  a  great  variety  of  Indian  tribes,  but  lias  had 
many  opportunities  of  studying  Mongolian  types.  Among  his 
observations  were  the  following : — Having  asked  him  if  he  had 
ever  observed  a  resemblance  between  lied  Indians  and  Tartars, 
he  replied  that  he  had,  but  that  it  was  more  marked  in  some 
tribes  than  in  others.  On  inquiring  in  which  tribe  it  was  most 
apparent,  he  promptly  replied  the  Sioux.  Another  gentlemai 
who  was  present  confirmed  the  resemblance,  and  commented  01 
the  former  great  extent  of  the  Dakotahs.  On  asking  General 

how  he  accounted  for  this  likeness  being  stronger  in  the. 

Indians  of  the  Plains  than  in  the  Chippeways,  he  replied  witl. 
substantially  the  same  suggestion  as  that  which  I  have  given  ai, 
the  end  of  Chapter  IX.  of  this  work — that  all  Red  Indians,  aiic. 
many  Eastern  Asiatics,  had  a  common  Mongol  origin,  which  ii. 
the  nomadic  and  equestrian  life  of  the  Plains,  had  redevelopec. 
itself  into  a  type  somewhat  resembling  that  existing  in  the 
steppes  of  Tartary.  He  also  declared  that,  in  all  Pied  Indian 
tribes,  there  is  a  really  extraordinary  resemblance  of  squaws  to 
Chinese  women.  This  is  recognised  by  both  Indians  and  Chinese 
when  they  meet — as  they  now  very  frequently  do — in  California 
and  Oregon.  My  informant  had  been  interested  and  amused  at 
seeing  the  prompt  intimacy  which  often  ensued  on  such  ren 
contres.  Chinese  and  Red  Indian  women  have  in  common  a 
very  peculiar  custom,  not  found  among  Aryan  races.  Many 
of  my  American  readers  will  understand  to  what  I  allude.  I 
am  inclined  to  believe  that  Nature  manifests  herself  in  these 
affinities.  Once,  at  an  English  boat-race  on  the  Thames,  I  saw 
a  group  of  gipsies  eyeing  with  intense  interest  a  very  dark  and 
very  well-dressed  gentleman.  As  I  approached,  one  of  them 
muttered  to  me  in  his  language,  "  Eya  ma  pensa  tu  te  adoio  rye 
se  JKomanis  ? "  ("Master,  don't  you  think  that  gentleman  is 
gipsy?")  I  was  under  the  impression  that  it  was  a  wealthy 
Jew  from  India,  who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  told  the 
Petulengo  there  was  no  gipsy  blood  there.  But  I  found  after 
wards  that  the  dark  gentleman  was  really  Hindoo.  An  old 


APPENDIX.  193 


gipsy  woman,  when  she  saw  the  Shah,  declared  positively  there  was 
something  Kommany  in  him;  "she  knew  it  well  enough."  And 
as  she  herself  used  half-a-dozen  Persian  words  in  saying  so,  I 
thought  her  partly  right.  Gipsies  fraternise  very  readily  with 
natives  of  India,  but  not  with  Jews ;  nor  have  I  ever  heard  of 
Chinese  or  Red  Indians  regarding  mulattoes  as  of  their  blood — 
with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  "  Jim  Beckworth,"  whose  asser 
tion  must,  however,  be  taken  with  allowance.  General  

recognised  the  custom  of  love-making  described  by  Hoei-shin  in 
Fusang  as  common  to  several  Red  Indian  tribes,  though  it  does 
not — at  present,  at  least — last  so  long  among  the  latter  as  it  did 
in  the  days  of  the  monk.  A  month  is  generally  sufficient,  in  these 
degenerate  days,  for  the  suitor  to  reside  near  his  love ;  but  the 
higher  the  pretensions  of  the  girl,  the  longer  must  he  continue 
his  residence. 

My  informant  had  lived  among  the  Pueblos.  He  was  positive 
that  there  were  among  them  virgins  appointed  to  keep  the  sacred 
fire  burning,  but  added,  that  there  were  male  priests  also  charged 
with  the  same  duty.  He  had  remarked  that  the  Indians  of.  the 
North-west  Coast  frequently  repeat  in  their  well-known  black- 
stone  carvings  the  dragon,  the  lotus-flower,  and  the  alligator, 
specimens  of  which  he  had  recently  given  to  a  well-known  pro 
fessor  at  Oxford. 

It  is  difficult  to  touch  on  the  resemblance  of  Xorth  American 
Indians  to  inhabitants  of  Asia,  without  becoming  involved  in  the 
differences  of  opinion  between  what  Daniel  Wilson  calls  the 
American  school  of  ethnologists,  and  others  in  Europe.  Accord 
ing  to  the  former,  to  use  the  words  of  Wilson,  the  American 
aborigines  are  affirmed  "  to  constitute  one  nearly  homogeneous 
race,  varying  within  very  narrow  limits  from  the  prevailing  type, 
and  agreeing  in  so  many  essentially  distinctive  features  as  to 
prove  them  a  well-defined,  distinct  species  of  the  genus  Homo. 
Lawrence,  Wiseman,  Agassiz,  Squier,  Gliddon,  Nott,  and  Meigs, 
might  each  be  quoted  in  confirmation  of  this  opinion,  and  espe 
cially  of  the  prevailing  uniformity  of  certain  strongly-marked 

H 


I94  APPENDIX. 


cranial  characteristics  ;  but  tlie  source  of  all  such  opinions  is  the 
justly-distinguished  author  of  the  '  Crania  Americana,'  Dr 
Morton  of  Philadelphia."  Mr  Wilson  holds  that  this  idea  of  a 
nearly  absolute  homogeneity  pervading  the  tribes  and  nations  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere,  through  every  variety  of  climate  and 
country,  is  so  entirely  opposed  to  the  ethnic  phenomena  wit 
nessed  in  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  that  it  is  deserving  of  the 
minutest  investigation.  The  marked  differences  which  have 
been  found  to  exist  among  the  men,  as  among  the  fauna  peculiar 
to  the  Western  Hemisphere,  are  explained  by  Agassiz  as  "  an 
indefinite  limitation  between  species/'  or  "  a  tendency  to  split 
into  minor  groups  running  really  into  one  another,  notwithstand 
ing  some  few  marked  differences"  ("Indigenous  Races  of  the 
Earth,"  p.  14).  Mr  Wilson  holds  that  recent  researches  indicate 
radical  differences  among  the  aborigines  of  America  ;  and  that,  for 
instance,  tried  by  Dr  Morton's  own  definitions  and  illustrations, 
the  famous  Scioto  Valley  skull  essentially  differs  from  the  Ameri 
can  typical  cranium  in  some  of  its  most  characteristic  features. 
And  Mr  Wilson  further  claims  that,  of  a  great  number  of  ancient 
American  skulls  examined  by  him,  very  many  exhibited  an  un 
mistakable  difference  from  the  so-called  typical  skull  of  Morton, 
while  a  general  uniformity  is  traceable  in  a  considerable  number 
of  Mexican  crania,  "  but  not  without  such  notable  exceptions  as 
to  admit  of  their  division  also  into  distinct  dolichocephalic  and 
brachycephalic  groups."  When  it  is  recognised,  as  both  Morton 
and  Agassiz  have  done,  that  there  are  marked  differences  between 
American  aboriginal  skulls — differences  as  great  as  are  allowed 
for  different  races  in  Europe — it  does  not  establish  their  identity 
to  declare  they  all  "  run  into  each  other,"  and  are  all  variations 
from  the  Scioto  Mound  skull.  This,  which  is  characterised  by 
Morton  as  the  perfect  type  of  Indian  conformation,  to  which  the 
skulls  of  all  the  tribes,  from  Cape  Horn  to  Canada,  more  or  less 
approximate,  presents  two-thirds  of  its  cerebral  mass  in  front  of 
the  meatus  audiiorius  extcrnus;  whereas,  in  the  elongated  Peru 
vian  skull,  unaltered  by  artificial  means,  this  is  almost  exactly 


APPENDIX.  195 


reversed,  showing,  by  the  proportions  of  the  cerebral  cavity,  that 
fnlly  two-thirds  of  the  brain  lay  behind  the  mealus  auditorius. 
The  reader  who  is  interested  in  this  subject  may  consult  Mr 
Wilson's  "Prehistoric  Man"  (London,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1862), 
for  the  arguments  on  either  side.  Non  nobis  tanta  componere, 
lites.  But  neither  view  affects  the  probability  of  Hoei-shin's 
having  visited  America,  nor  the  fact  that  there  are  at  pre 
sent  regular  links  of  likeness  between  the  American  Indians 
of  the  North-west  Coast  through  the  Aleutian  Islands  to  Asia. 
That  Dr  Morton  himself  had  no  prejudices  on  this  subject 
is  evident,  since  he,  with  the  late  Albert  Gallatin,  having  read 
in  the  MS.  my  translation  of  Professor  Neumann's  work,  ex 
pressed  a  great  interest  in  it,  and  manifested  no  opposition  to 
the  opinions  advanced,  excepting,  indeed,  that  Dr  Morton  said 
to  me,  in  conversation  on  the  subject,  that  such  authority  as 
that  of  Chinese  annals  seemed  obscure  and  doubtful.  Professor 
Neumann,  as  may  be  seen  on  referring  to  his  text,  fully  accepted 
Dr  Morton's  views  of  an  entire  unity  between  all  the  American 
Indian  tribes,  but  apparently  held  the  opinion  that,  at  some  very 
early  age,  they  had  a  common  origin  with  certain  Asiatic  races. 
At  present  only  one  thing  is  certain,  that  our  knowledge  is  far 
from  being  sufficiently  advanced  to  enable  us  to  decide  a  question 
which,  when  carried  out,  may  involve  that  of  the  origin  of  man. 


INDEX. 


ACOSTA,  136 

Affinities  of  American  and  Asiatic  languages,  99 

Agattou  and  Semitchi  Islands,  69 

Agave,  americana,  37,  162,  171 

Age  of  stone  or  bronze,  162, 165 

Ainos  or  Jebis,  extent  of  the  race,  11  ;  called  Crab  Barbarians,  ib.  ;  when 

first  described,  12 ;  called  Hairy  People,  ib.  ;  embassy  to  Japan,  ib.; 

wars  against  Japan,  14;   images  of,  22;  paint  themselves,   140; 

same  as  Mao-jen,  174.     Vide  Appendix. 
Akkad,  100 

Albert  Gallatin  on  American  languages,  156 
Alceste  Island,  66 
Aleutian  or  Fox  Islands,  11,  22,  70 
Aliaska  on  the  early  maps,  148 
Aloe,  Mexican,  known  in  China,  162 
Amakirima,  67 
Amazonia,  29 
Ambassadors  from  Fusang,  184  ;  Ambassade  des  Hollandais,  129  ;  first 

Japanese  to  China,  173 
America,   how   first  populated,  8 ;  formation  of  American  races,  ib. ; 

their  unity,  ib. 

American  coast,  castaways  on,  43,  76 
Amur  or  Amoor  River,  132  ;  Tartars  on  the,  145 
Anahuac,  35 

Ancient  races  of  North  American  Indians,  100  et  seq. 
Ancient  records  of  Mexico,  86 
Ancient  vessels  of  North-eastern  Asia,  64 
Androe  and  Geiger,  166 


198  INDEX. 


Antecedent  probability  that  Orientals  went  to  America,  59 

Aztec  god  of  war,  36  ;  computation  of  time,  39 

Aztecs  declare  they  came  from  the  north,  136  ;  later  accounts  of,  33 

"  Archiv  fiir  die  wissenschaftliche  Kunde  von  Russland,"  149 

Arrow-heads  made  of  flint,  165 

Atsowma,  175 

Attou  Island,  68 

Avatcha,  146  ;  Bay  of,  68 

Aymara,  Peruvian,  100 

BAY  of  St  Lawrence,  Siberia,  75 

Baikal,  Lake,  144 

Bartlett,  John  Russell,  151 

Beans,  Mex'can  (frijoles),  135 

Behring's  Straits  or  Anadir,  9 

"  Bibliotheca  Sinologica,"  166 

Bigandet,  Father  R.  R.,  93 

Bison  and  oxen,  153 

Black  Dragon  River,  15 

"Book  of  Mountains  and  Seas,"  12 

Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  L'Abbe,  151 

Bretschneider,  Dr,  his  opinion  of  Hoei-shin,  165  ;  his  discussion  of  Fusang, 

ib. ;  his  opinion  of  all  who  believe  in  Fusang,  169  ;  he  approves 

of  Father  Hyacinth's  expression,  170  ;  Reply  to  Dr  Bretschneider, 

176  ;  summary  of  his  argument,  185 
Broussonetia  papyri/era.  172,  180 
Buache,  Philip,  his  map,  126,  147 
Buddha,  images  of,  119  ;  attitude  of,  120 
Buddhism,  4  ;  its  influence  in  partly  breaking  Chinese  exclusiveness,  5  ; 

in  Fusang,  28  ;  its  extension,  31 ;  introduced  into  Fusang,  143  ;  its 

progress,  113  ;  not  understood  by  Deguignes,  155;  introduced  into 

Japan,  156,  163 
Buddhist  priests  in  America,  discussed  by  Simson,  162  ;    monks,  5  ; 

Trinity,  ib.  ;  writings  an  important  part  of  Chinese  literature  and 

history,  65  ;  travels  of,  87 
Burlinghame,  175 
Burnouf,  works  of,  156 


INDEX.  199 


CACTUS,  in  ancient  Mexican,  tuna,  119 

California,  coast  of,  147  ;  Chinese  merchants  there  in  early  times,  150 
Cape  San  Lucas,  71 
Carpin,  Jean  du  Plan  de,  33 
Catacualcans,  136 
Catlin,  152 

Cban-hai-king  on  Fusang,  143 
Chamo,  great  desert  of,  130 
Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France,"  137 
Che-goi  tribes,  sable  hunters,  132  et  seq. 
Chicago,  ancient  skulls  from,  111 
Children,  change  in  appearance  of,  in  new  climates,  78 
Chinese  precepts  relative  to  the  outer  world,  3  ;    early  embassies,  4 
reception    of    envoys,  ib.  •    knowledge    of   foreign    countries,  6 
pride  and  vanity,  ib.  ;  acquire  knowledge  of  North-eastern  Asia,  9 
Chinese  and  Japanese  in  Kamtschatka  and  the  Hawaiian  group,  43 
et  seq.  ;  Recorder  and  Missionary  Journal,  165  ;  Chinese  poets,  169 
Chippeway  perpetual  fire,  184 
Chi-tao-an,  89 

Chi-wu-ming-shi-tu-k'ao,  drawing  of  Hibiscus  in  the,  170 
Chu-kon,  Kon-sang,  Kon-shu,  172 

Chu-kin,  Chi-kin,  Jiki,  synonyms  for  Hibiscus  rosa  siniensis,  170 
Chy-wei  Youtche  or  Youtchy,  144 
Cibola,  152 

Clavigero,  Storia  Antica  del  Messico,  35 
Clarke  Hyde,  Mr,  99 
Cocom,  Indian  chief,  shows  picture  of  a  cow  ;  ancient  prophecy  told  by 

him,  154 

Cochran,  Lieutenant,  130 
Colours  applied  to  cycles  of  time,  40 

Columbus,  75  ;  his  vessels,  76 

Continental    Magazine    (N.Y.)  for  1862  contained    a  portion  of  the 
present  work,  163 

Cooper,  Fenimore,  name  of  vessel,  68,  76 

Copper  in  Fusang,  28,  38 

Criminals  in  Fusang,  46,  47 

Currents,  the  Japanese,  74  ;  the  Peruvian  or  Humboldt  Current,  ib. 


200  INDEX. 


D'AcosxA,  150 

Dakota  or  Sioux  language,  101  ;    affinity  with  Ural-Altaic  languages, 

102  ;  resemblance  of  Dakotasto  Tartars,  192 
Dead  placed  in  trees  by  the  Tunguse,  10 
Deer,  10 
Deguignes,  Klaproth,  and  D'Eichthal,  125  ;  Deguignes  determined  that 

"Wens bin.  was  Jeso,  129  ;  old  writers  cited  by,  ib.  ;   his  account  of 

the  different  people  on  the  route  more  detailed  than  Neumann's, 

131  ;  determined  that  Fusang  was  New  Mexico,  133  ;  remarks  on 

Kingdom  of  Women,  134 ;  his   argument,  138  ;  wrote  according 

to  his  title,  139 ;  on  the  second  itinerary,  143  et  seq.  ;  traces  the 

route,  148  et  seq. ;  cited  by  Bretschneider,  166 
D'Eichthal,  his  memoir,  125,  127  et  seq.  ;  his  defence  of  Deguignes,  125 

et  seq.  ;  observations  on  Aleutian  Islands,  132  ;  on  distance  from 

Tahan,  140 

De  Laet,  127  ;  describes  Pueblo  Indians,  136 
De  Landa,  Diego  de,  on  Yucatan,  153 
De  Long,  Mr,  on  the  Ainos  and  Japanese,  188 
Delaware  Indians  called  women,  134 
De  Tlsle,  M.  Guillaume,  147 
"  Description  of  Western  Countries,"  a  Chinese  work  destroyed  in  Pekin, 

89 
Distance  between  Corea  and  middle  of  Niphon,  140  ;  from  China  to 

Fusang,  as  claimed  by  the  believers  in  Hoei-shin,  fully  admitted  by 

Dr  Bretschneider,  182 

Djourdje,  ancestors  of  the  present  Mongols,  144 
Dogs,  swine,  devils,  and  savages,  Chinese  names  for  races  of  the  north, 

south,  east,  and  west,  6 ;  dogs  in  Kamtschatka,  20 ;  dog  smelling 
land,  73 

Domestic  animals  in  Fusang,  40 
Dryanda  cordata,  171 

EASTERN  and  Central  Asiatic  History,  6 

Edrisi,  30 

Elceococca  verucosa,  171 

Empress  Tai-Hau  of  the  Wei  dynasty,  possibly  the  patroness  of  Iloei- 

shin,  6 
Esquimaux,  11 


INDEX.  201 


Ethnology,  accuracy  in,  114 
Ewbauk,  Thomas,  151 

FA-HIAN,  89,  90  ;  Travels  of,  92 

Fa-kiai-ngan-litu,  i.e.,  More  Certain  Tables  of  Religion,  32 

Feathers,  ball  of,  seen  by  Mexican  goddess,  36 

Fishermen,  Chinese  and  Japanese,  66 

Flying  natives  of  Fusang,  fable  of,  143 

Florida,  Straits  of,  74 

Flower  of  the  Centre,  name  for  China,  6 

Fogs  in  Kamtschatka,  73 

Formosa,  11,  67 

Foster,  Y.  W.,  LL.D.,  115 

Fox  Islands,  11,  70. 

Fruit  preserved,  69 

Furs  in  the  Aleutian  Islands,  132 

Fusang,  kingdom  of,  25  et  seq. ;  latest  discussions  of,  142,  161  ;  Fu 
sang- tree,  45,  162;  malvaceous,  164;  envoys  from  Fusang  to 
China,  175 ;  not  in  Japan,  142,  173 

Future  of  Eastern  Asia,  46 

GALLATIN  Albert,  7,  56, 195 

Garments  and  colours  peculiar  to  the  King  of  Fusang,  27 

Gaubil,  "  Observations  Mathematiques."  9,  40 ;  researches  in  Chinese 

astronomy,  128 
Gentleman's  Magazine,  165 
Geographers,  early,  probably  possessed  information  relative  to  the  North 

Pacific  Ocean  now  lost,  147 

Gipsy  names  for  animals,  41,  164  ;  affinities  with  Hindoos,  192 
Gobineau,  Count,  his  ideas  as  to  ancient  America,  176  ;  regards  it  as  the 

world's  cradle,  176 
Goei-chi  (A.D.  510),  129 
Gold  in  Fusang,  28 
Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  75 
Great  Ireland,  24 

Green-corn  festival  of  the  Creek  Indians,  56  ;  dance  of  the,  ib. 
Grellon,  Pere,  finds  a  Huron  woman  in  Tartary,  137 


202  INDEX. 


Grijalva,  Juan  de,  nephew  of  Velasquez,  36 
Greek  priest  and  family  in  Atcha,  69 
Grotius,  127 

HAKODODI,  67 

Han,  history  of  the  later,  173  ;  in  Corea,  ib. 

Hanley,  Mr,  172 

Hawaiian  Spectator,  44 

Hei-chi,  black-toothed  men,  167 

Herrera,  Antonio  de,  38 

Hiao-wou-te  of  Souang,  reign  of,  155 

Hibiscus  rosa  siniensis,  called  Fusang  in  Pekin,  170 ;  Hibiscus 
syriacus,  ib. 

Hieronymus  d'Angelis,  46 

Hinds  domesticated  in  Fusang,  154 

Hiouen-thsang,  life  and  travels  of,  88 

"  Histoire  des  Huns,  des  Turcs,  des  Mongoles,"  &c.,  par  Joseph  Deguignes, 
138 

History  and  journeys  of  fifty-six  monks  of  the  dynasty  of  Thang,  92 

History  of  the  Master  of  the  Law  of  the  three  collections  of  the  Convent 
of  Grand  Benevolence,  91 

Iloai-nan-tsu,  the,  on  Fusang,  143 

Hoam-ho  River,  131 

Hoang-hoin,  144 

Hodgson,  works  of,  156 

Hoei-shin,  Hoei-schin,  Hui-shen,  name  how  written,  vi. ;  verification  of 
his  assertions,  187 ;  narrative  as  translated  by  Professor  Neumann 
from  the  Chinese,  and  revised  by  him,  3  •  meaning  of  the  word,  25  j 
his  journey,  58  ;  his  route,  130  ;  his  description  of  the  American  aloe, 
172  ;  he  confuses  plants,  ib.  ;  Hui-shen,  "a  lying  priest,"  according 
to  Bretschneider,  166  ;  narrative  of  Hoei-shin  as  given  by  Bret- 
schneider,  168 

Iloei-khe  Turks,  144 

Hoei-li,  91 

Hoei-seng  and  Seng-yung,  memoir  of,  93 

Hoffmann,  14 

Hong-ing-ta,  the  expounder  of  King  in  the  times  of  Tang,  25 


INDEX.  203 


Hong  Kong  Island,  67 

Hontan,  Baron  de,  137 

Home,  George,  136 

Horses  in  Fusang,  41,  51,  170 

Hing-goci,  native  name  for  Kamtschatka,  15 

Huitzilopotschli,  36 

Humboldt,  "  Views  of  the  Cordilleras/'  156  ;  "  New  Spain,"  40 

Hyde  Clarke,  54 

Hyacinth,  Father,  170 

ICHI,  the  King  of  Fusang,  27  ;  Ichi  and  Irica,  52 

Identity  of  Tartars  and  North  American  Indians,  7 

Ihan,  the  celebrated  astronomer,  15 

Incas,  50 ;  going  forth  of,  52  ;  ritual  of,  ib.  ;  garments  of,  their  colours, 

53  ;  married  their  own  sisters,  56 

Indian  women  of  North  America  greatly  resemble  the  Chinese,  135 
Iron  in  Fusang,  28,  172 

Irving,  Washington,  "  Knickerbocker  History  of  New  York,"  127 
Islands  in  the  Aleutian  Chain,  Boulder,  Kusha,  Amtchitka,  Krysi,  or  Rat 

Island,  in  the  Andranof  group,  Tonago,  Adakh,  Atkha,  Ammnak,  69 
Itolmen,  or  natives  of  Kamtschatka,  17  ;  dwellings  of,  ib.  ;  clothing,  19; 

music,  20 

JAPAN,  Notes  and  Queries  on  China  and,  161  ;  coast  of,  66,  74;  Ainos 
in,  140  ;  as  it  was,  54 ;  not  Fusang,  142 ;  Buddhism  introduced, 
143,  156  ;  Broussonetia  in,  172;  origin  of  name,  174 

Japanese  year-books,  12  ;  annals  from  661  until  696,  34 ;  facetiae,  29 ; 
junk,  44 ;  Government,  45,  75  ;  junk  wrecked,  45  ;  vessel  in  Ame 
rica,  ib. ;  charts,  76 ;  junk  picked  up,  77  ;  resemblance  of,  to  Sand 
wich  Islanders,  77 ;  religion,  78 ;  navigation,  81 ;  early  discovery  of 
America  by,  126  ;  Wenshin  N.W.  of  Japan,  129;  maps,  147 

Jean  du  Plan  de  Carpin,  32 

Jeddo,  4 

Jeso,  14  ;  sea  of,  130 

Jesuit  missionaries,  43 

Jetsehay,  16  ;  Jetschaykno,  ib. 

Juan  de  Grijalva,  nephew  of  Velasquez,  36 


204  INDEX. 


Juen-kien-kui-han,  14 
Jipen,  174 

KALOSCHEN,  10 

Kampfer,  the  first  who  spoke  of  America  as  known  from  early  times  to 
the  Japanese,  126. 

Kamtschatka,  11,  34;  in  the  time  of  Tang,  15  ;  distance  from  Sigan, 
the  capital  of  China,  ib.  ;  description  of,  by  Steller,  ib.  ;  identity 
with  Lieu-kueij  ib. ;  dwellings,  19  ;  climate,  ib. ;  habits  of  the 
people,  ib. 

Kang-hi,  encyclopaedia  of,  14 

Kao-thsang,  the  Emperor,  89 

Kapilapura,  King  of,  5 

Kara-korum,  144 

Karl  Gutzlaff,  45 

Kennon,  Colonel  Barclay,  his  assistance,  G3  ;  letter  from,  C5  ;  brief  memoir 
of,  94;  his  personal  knowledge  of  the  North  Pacific,  126  et  scr[.  ; 
on  furs,  133 

Khi-nie,  itinerary  of,  92 

Khirgiz  or  Kirkis,  144 

Kien-hai  Lake  or  Baikal,  168 

Kie-kia-ssu,  countries  of,  168 

Kingdom  and  nobles  of  Fusang,  27 

King-tsclm,  25 

Kipin,  five  beggar  monks  from,  introduce  Buddhism  into  Fusang,  Kipin, 
and  Beloochistan,  31  ;  Kipin,  Kophen,  Bokhara,  155. 

Klaproth,  Julius  von.  125 ;  passed  translation  from  the  Chinese  as  his  own, 
12, 174 ;  attempted  to  refute  Deguignes,  125  et  seq. ;  "  Rccherches  sur 
le  Pays  de  Fou-sang,"  138  ;  ridicules  Deguignes,  ib.  ;  thought  Tahaii 
was  Kamtschatka,  141  ;  argument  against  Deguignes,  ib. ;  contradicts 
his  text  according  to  D'Eichthal,  142,  156  ;  according  to  Bretsch- 
iieider, he  refuted  Deguignes,  166;  "Tableau  Historiques,"  168; 
his  disciple,  Bretschneider,  176  ;  severely  judged,  183 

Knonotski,  Cape  of,  68 

Knickerbocker  Magazine  for  1850  contained  the  first  English  version  of 
Neumann's  work  on  Fusang,  now  given  in  this  volume,  163 

Ko-li-han,  or  Choran,  country  of,  130 


INDEX,  205 


Kong,  the  Hill  of,  25 

Kou-li-han,  country  of,  144 

Kousang  plant  resembles  the  maguey,  180 

Kocoima  walrus-hunters  often  carried  on  ice-fields  from  the  Asiatic  to 

the  American  shore,  1 37 
Krusenstern,  Straits  of,  66 
Ku,  country  of,  168 
Kuang-wu,  reign  of,  173 
Kurile  or  Aleutian  Islands,  11,  65,  67,  132 
Kuro-suvo,  or  Japanese  current,  71,  74 

LADROXE  Islands,  74 

Lao-tse,  3 

La  Perouse,  Strait  of,  141 

Leang,  dynasty  of,  24  ;  Leang-schu,  25 

Leao-tong,  northern  province  of  China,  128,  140 

Leg  of  mutton,  time  measured  by  roasting,  10 

Lew-Chew,  Loo-Choo,  natives  of,  without  iron,  172 

Li,  Chinese  measure  of  distance,  128  ;  in  the  fifth  century,  140  ;  twenty 

thousand  li  from  Tahan,  141 
Liang  dynasty,  history  of,  166 
Liang-ssu-kung-ki,  passage  from  the,  stating  that  ambassadors  went  from 

Fusang  to  China,  175,  184 
Liang-sze-kung-ki,  the,  184 
Lieu-kuei.  its  situation,  15  ;  meaning  of  the  word,  16  ;  king  of,  sent 

his  son  to  China,  145 
Life  of  Gaudama,  93 
Li-pe-tai  on  Fusang,  143 
Li-sao,  the,  on  Fusang,  143 
Li-yen,  a  Chinese  historian,  speaks  of  Fusang,  127 
Loo-chooese  and  Japanese,  79 
Lorchas  Islands,  74 

MADJICO  Sima  group,  67 

Maguey  or  Agave  americana,  37,  162,  171 

Malvacea,  Fusang-tree,  170-180 

Mamma  or  ama,  found  in  many  languages,  107 

Mandans,  152  ;  their  heaven  and  hell,  153 


2o6  INDEX. 


Mandeville,  Sir  John,  and  other  travellers,  33 

Mantchou  tribes  dressed  in  fish-skins,  20  ;  Jupi,  ib. 

Mao-jen,  the  hairy  men,  or  Ainos,  12,  174 

Ma  (or  Man)  tu-an-lin,  12,  14,  24,  166 

Marriage  in  Fusang,  46 

Marvels  and  romances  of  Fusang,  32;  marvels  narrated  by  Hoei-shin , 

94 

Matsumai,  67 

Maury  (vide  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  April  1858),  132 
Man  shin,  Mosin,  11 
Melendez,  Pedro,  136 
"Memoirs  de  1' Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres,"  22,  125, 

126,  148 

Memoirs  of  the  kingdoms  of  Buddha,  90 

Merchants,  foreign,  clothed  in  silk  among  the  Catactialcans,  136 
Metals  and  money,  38 
Mexican    antiquities,    113;    god   of  air,   ib. ;   monuments,   pyramidal 

form  of,  35  ;  money,  38  ;  nobility,  four  orders  of,  39 
Metals  and  money  in  Fusang,  38 
Miles,  Colonel,  translator  of  the  "  Shajrat-ul-Atrak,"  his  translation  of 

"  tung,"  9 

Milk  known  to  ancient  Mexicans,  154 
Mirambecs,  Indians  near  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  137 
Mirrors  brought  from  Fusang,  184  ;  Peruvian  mirrors,  ib. 
Mitla  and  Palenque,  ruins  of,  34 
Moko  or  Mongolians,  16 
Mongols,  Mongol  or  Mog,  9 
Mongolian,  affinity  of  languages  to  Dakota  Indian  ;  a  Mongol  resembles 

an  Apache,  95 
Montesinos,  53 

Mormonism  not  Christianity,  as  stated  by  Dr  Bretsclmeider,  184 
Mormon  country,  173 

Morton,  Dr  S.,  his  views  of  American  Indians,  194 
Moslem,  31 

Hossman,  S.,  on  the  early  Japanese,  190 
Mound-builders,  110  ;  character  of,  ib. 
Mourning  for  the  dead  in  Fusang,  28 


INDEX.  207 


Mu-kin,  170 

Mulberry-trees  in  Fusang,  143 

Mummies  in  Aliaska,  192 

"  Miinchener  Gelehrte  Anzeigen,"  24 

NAGERA,  Castaneda  de,  151 

Naked  men,  lands  of,  167 

Names,  how  given  by  newcomers  into  strange  lands,  164 

Nan-su,  the  historian,  134 

Narrative  of  Hoei-shin,  with  comments  by  Professor  C.  F.  Neumann,  1  ; 

as  given  by  Bretschneider,  165 
Na-to-scha,  nobles  of  Fusang,  27 
Nausse  or  history  of  the  southern  dynasty,  22 
Navigation,  early  Chinese,  64 
Neumann,  Professor  C.  F.,  memoir  of,  vi. ;  education  and  life,  ib.  ;  his 

works,  xiv. ;   his  work  on  Fusang,  3 ;  Neumann  not  read  by  Dr 

Bretschneider,  but  attacked  by  the  latter,  178 
New  Spain,  36 
New  Mexico,  early  seat  of  ancient  Mexican  civilisation,  151 ;  Indians  of 

New  Mexico,  135 

Niga,  Father,  saw  white  Indians,  152 
Nineveh  Library,  discovery  of,  50 
Niphon,  67 

Northern  California,  Chinese  traded  with,  in  remote  times,  136 
Norsemen  in  America,  32 

North  American  Indians,  resemblance  of,  to  Mongolians,  80 
Notes  and  Queries  on  China  and  Japan,  request  in,  for  information  on 

Fusang,  173 ;  on  Fusang,  161,  166 
Nu-wang-kuo,  175 

ODIN,  EIGHT  RINGS  OF,  36 

Onon,  the  River,  144 

Orchon,  left  bank  of,  144 

Ordos  or  Ho-tao  country,  144 

Oregon,  71 

"  Ost-Asien  und  West  Amerika,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Allgemeine  Erdkunde," 

April  1864,  an  article  by  Neumann  which  refers  the  nativity  of 

Hoei-shin  to  China,  139 


208  INDEX. 


Ostrogoths  and  European  nations,  8 
Oxen  in  Fusang,  40 

PACHACOMAC,  55 

Pacific  Islands  to  the  leeward  of  Japan,  79 

Papua  or  New  Guinea,  12 

Paravey,  his  two  works  on  the  Fusang  question,  166 

Parsees,  the,  95 

Pears  in  Fusang,  28 

Pe-hai,  North  Sea,  and  Schao-hai,  Little  Sea,  16 

Perez  Jose,  in  Revue  Orientale  et  Americaine,  142 

Peru  and  Fusang,  49  et  seq.  ;  Peruvian  Incas,  50  ;  houses,  51  ;  cycles, 

53  ;  traditions  of  the  Deluge,  54  ;  of  the  good  Deity,  ib.  ;  Peruvian 

and  Chinese  policy  alike,  55  ;  graves,  7 
Peter  and  Paul's  Haven,  15 
Peti  or  northern  savages,  9 
Pictures  by  Chinese  botanists,  179 
Pi-kliieou  or  priests  of  Buddha,  155 
Piljo-tai-hotun,  131 
Polaris,  crew  of,  137 
Popol  Vuh,  151,  154 
Posten,  Hon.  C.  D.,  95 
Postpositions,  107 

"Prehistoric  Races  of  the  United  States  of  America,"  115 
Prescott,  "History  of  Mexico,"  34,  37 
Prester  John,  33 
Prisons  in  Fusang,  46,  153 

Probability  of  voyages  made  by  ancient  Japanese,  74 
Prostitution  or  polygamy  in  Utah,  182 

Pueblo  Indians  of  light  colour,  135  ;  cloth,  ib. ;  dwellings,  ib. 
Pun-tsao,  171 
Pun-tsao-kang-mu,  170 

QUIVIR,  136 

RED  Indians  and  Chinese,  affinities  between,  192 

"  Relation  des  Mongols  ou  Tartares,"  by  Jean  du  Plan  de  Carpin,  33 

Remarks  on  the  text  of  Professor  Neumann,  49 


1. 


INDEX. 


209 


Renzi,  "  Memoires  de  la  Societe  des  Antiquaires,  Partie  linguistique,"  £ 

"  Reports  of  Explorations  and  Surveys  for  the  Pacific  Railroad,"  151 

Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  149 

Revue  Archceologique,  132 

Roehrig,  F.  L.  0.,  100 

Roger's  Straits,  66 

Romances  of  Fusang,  143  ;  poets  who  have  written  on  it,  ib. 

Rosny,  Leon  de,  169 

Russian  establishments  on  St  Paul  and  St  George,  132 

SAGHALIEN,  Fusang  according  to  Bretschneider,   175  ;   not  in  a  tem 
perate  climate,  172 
Sakka,  Sakku,  a  swan,  164 
Salt  Lake  City,  173 

Samarcand,  a  stronghold  of  Buddhism,  155  ;  Bonzes  from,  ib. 
San  Bias,  33 
Sanson,  his  map,  147 
Sandwich  Islanders  resemble  Japanese,  77 
Saturday  Review,  115 
Schakia,  religion  of,  36    • 
Schan-hai-king,  12 
Schensi,  district  of,  1 5 

Shajrat-ul-Atrak,  or  genealogical  tree  of  the  Turks  and  Tartar*,  9 
Shapa,  capital  of  Loo-choo  Islands,  67 
Siebold,  "  Japanese  Archives,"  14 
Sigan,  the  ancient  capital  of  China,  15 
Silver  in  Fusang,  28 

Simson  Theos.,  161  et  seq.  ;  approved  by  Dr  Bretschneider,  179 
Simson,  William,  F.R.G.S.,  99 
Sitka,  71,  149 
Sloane,  Hans,  148 
Song,  Great  Light  of,  28 
Stags  in  Fusang,  28  ;  stag-horns,  40 
Stanislas,  Julien,  88  et  seq. 
Steller,  "  Description  of  Kamtschatka/'  1 4,  1 7 
Stems,  Mongol  and  Mantchou,  40 
Stercu  lia  plan  ta  n  if  oil  a ,    171 

o 


210  INDEX. 


Sultoi-Noss,  145 

Sum  or  Sung  dynasty,  145 

Sun  makes  his  toilet  in  Fusang,  143 

Sung-yun,  the  mission  of,  92,  93 ;  probably  contemporary  with  Hoei-shin,  92 

TAHAN,  means  Great  China,  24  ;  distance,  33,  57,  127,  129  ;  five  thou 
sand  li  between  Jesso  and  Tahan,  131  ;  travellers'  route  to,  ib.  ; 
reached  by  sea,  133  ;  Tahan  to  Fusang,  166  ;  20,000  If,  140  ;  route 
to,  144, 146  ;  envoys  from,  first  came  to  China  in  seventh  century, 
168  ;  according  to  Bretschneider  in  Siberia,  175 

Tai-IIau,  Empress  Dowa.ger,  93 

Tam-chu,  route  to  America,  131,  133 

Tang  dynasty,  history  of,  167,  174 

Tang-schu  or  year-bcoks  of  Tang,  12  ;  ruler  of  Tang,  13  ;  Kamtschatka 
described  in  the  time  of,  15  ;  error  in  Tang-schu,  16 

Tapia,  Senor  Jose  Ortiz,  113 

Tarai-kai,  was  it  Tahan  ?  141 

Tartars'  Hades,  8  ;  Tartar  cycle  and  its  colours,  53 

Tattooing  by  Wen-shin  and  by  North  American  Indians,  167 

Tchitchagoff,  68 

Tchung-cheou-kiang-tching,  131 

Temperature  of  Bhering's  Straits,  74  ;  of  Matsumai,  75 

Ternaux  Compans,  151 

"  The  devil  who  runs  through,"  i.e.,  Lieu-kuei,  16 

"  The  devil's  companion,"  i.e.,  Jetschay,  16 

Thorn,  Mr  Robert,  90 

Time  measured  by  roasting  legs  of  mutton,  130 

Tolteks,  35,  113 

Tomsk, 168 

Travellers,  the  old,  not  now  entirely  discredited  because  they  narrated 
marvels,  178 

Tschen,  dynasty  of,  11 

Tschuktschi  or  Koljuschens,  10,  16 

Tschu-tschu  or  Land  of  Dwarfs,  12 

Tuilu,  nobles  of  Fusang,  27 

Tuna,  Mexican  word  for  cactus,  179 

Tung,  the  tree,  171 


INDEX.  211 


Tungiise,  Turks.  Mongolians,  &c.,  identical  with  the  Esquimaux  races,  7  ; 

Tungese  Eastern  barbarians,  8  ;  geographical  situation  of,  9  ;  cus-. 

toms,  10 
Turner,  Professor  TV.  TV.,  151  ;  works  of,  156 

"  UNIVERSAL  Compassion,"  meaning  of  the  name  Hoei-shin,  25 
Uries,  Strait  of,  130 

VASCO  de  Gama,  75 

Vasquez,  Fr.,  de  Coronado,  136 

Vancouver's  Island,  71 

Ven-hien-tum-kao,  the  historian  (A.D.  515),  131,  134 

Vessels  driven  by  storms  to  America  from  Asia,  134 

Vestal  virgins  in  Peru,  55 ;  among  the  Pueblo  Indians,  to  keep  their 

fire  burning,  195 
Vine  known  in  Mexico,  152 
Viracocha,  55 

Visnago,  Cactce  globosce,  179 
Voyages  can  be  made  from  China  to  America  in  sight  of  land,  71 

WENJAMINOW,  Father,  "Sur  les  Isles   Aleoutiennes  du  District  de 

Unalaska,"  149 

Wen-shin  or  Painted  People,  11,  22 ;  the  country  of  the,  same  as  Jeso,  140 
"  Western  Countries,  Memoirs  of,"  edited  by  Hioen-thsang,  91 
Western  Mountain  of  the  Gods,  4 
TVhipple,  Lieutenant  A.  TV.,  report  by,  151 
White  aborigines  in  Mexico,  152 
Winaland  or  Vineland,  32 

Wilson,  Daniel,  LL.D.,  "  American  Ethnology,"'  193 
Wo,  ancient  name  for  Japan,  174 
Women  and  children,  Japanese  and  Chinese,  go  to  sea  with  head  of 

family,  77 
Women,  Kingdom  of,  in  Fusang,  29  ;  situated  1000  li  east  of  Fusang, 

134  ;  tribes  of  aborigines  in  North   America  called  women,  ib.  ; 

story  of  the  Kingdom  of  Women  only  given  as  a  report  by  Hoei-shin, 

ib.  ;  not   in  Japan,  142,  169  ;  no   rnammce,  ib. ;  suckle  children, 
ib.  ;  kingdom,  where  situated,  173,  182,  286  ;  in  Japan,  17-"> 


2 1 2  INDEX. 


Wo-nu,  envoys  from  the,  1 73 

Woo-sung  River,  66 

Wog  or  Mog  Mongolians,  9 

Wrangell,  Rear- Admiral,  "  Les  Renseignements,  &c.,  sur  les  Possessions 

Russes,"  1 48 

Writing,  Chinese,  introduced  into  Japan  A.D.  280,  174 
Wu-ti,  Emperor,  173 

YAMATO  or  Ye-ma-t'ai,  175,  280 

Yang-kon,  Valley  of,  143 

Yang-tse-kiang,  66 

Year-books  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  5,  15  ;  of  the  Southern  dynasty,  22  ; 

year-books  of  Leang,  22,  26 
Ye-ma-t'ai,  173 
Yenissey,  168 
Yen-thsang,  91 

Y.  J.  A.  inquires  in  Chinese  Notes  and  Queries  as  to  Fusang,  161   et 

seq. 

Yucatan,  73 

Yu-tche,  a  race  derived  from  the  Che-goei,  1:33 
Yu-t'ung  tree,  171 

ZENGHIS  Khan  or  Tschinggs  Chakan,  9 
Zuni,  white  Indians  at,  152 


THE    END. 


vINTKI)  BY   HAI.LANTYXH  AM)  C'OMI'AN' 

KI>I.\IU-K<;H  AND  L<,  \nr.x 


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